IN  MEMORIAM 
FLOR1AN  CAJORI 


LITTLE  MASTERPIECES   OF   SCIENCE 


Little    Masterpieces 
of    Science 

Edited    by    George    lies 


INVENTION  AND  DIS- 
COVERY 

By 

Benjamin  Franklin  Alexander  Graham  Bell 
Michael  Faraday       Count  Rumford 
Joseph  Henry  George  Stephenson 


e^er 


NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE   &   COMPANY 

1902 


Copyright,  1902,  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 
Copyright,  1877,  by  George  B.  Prescott 

Copyright,  1896,  by  S.  S.  McClure  Co. 
Copyright,  1900,  by  Doubleday,  McClure  &  Co. 


PREFACE 

To  a  good  many  of  us  the  inventor  is  the  true 
hero  for  he  multiplies  the  working  value  of 
life.  He  performs  an  old  task  with  new  econ- 
omy, as  when  he  devises  a  mowing-machine  to 
oust  the  scythe ;  or  he  creates  -a  service  wholly 
new,  as  when  he  bids  a  landscape  depict  itself  on 
a  photographic  plate.  He,  and  his  twin  brother, 
the  discoverer,  have  eyes  to  read  a  lesson  that 
Nature  has  held  for  ages  under  the  undiscerning 
gaze  of  other  men.  Where  an  ordinary  observer 
sees,  or  thinks  he  sees,  diversity,  a  Franklin  de- 
tects identity,  as  in  the  famous  experiment  here 
recounted  which  proves  lightning  to  be  one  and 
the  same  with  a  charge  of  the  Ley  den  jar.  Of  a 
later  day  than  Franklin,  advantaged  therefor 
by  new  knowledge  and  better  opportunities  for 
experiment,  stood  Faraday,  the  founder  of 
modern  electric  art.  His  work  gave  the  world  the 
dynamo  and  motor,  the  transmission  of  giant 
powers,  almost  without  toll,  for  two  hundred 
miles  at  a  bound.  It  is,  however,  in  the  carriage 
of  but  trifling  quantities  of  motion,  just  enough 
for  signals,  that  electricity  thus  far  has  done  its 
most  telling  work.  Among  the  men  who  have 
created  the  electric  telegraph  Joseph  Henry  has 
a  commanding  place.  A  short  account  of  what 
he  did,  told  in  his  own  words,  is  here  presented. 
Then  follows  a  narrative  of  the  difficult  task  of 


M306208 


Preface 

laying  the  first  Atlantic  cables,  a  task  long 
scouted  as  impossible:  it  is  a  story  which  proves 
how  much  science  may  be  indebted  to  unfaltering 
courage,  to  faith  in  ultimate  triumph. 

To  give  speech  the  wings  of  electricity,  to 
enable  friends  in  Denver  and  New  York  to  con- 
verse with  one  another,  is  a  marvel  which  only 
familiarity  places  beyond  the  pale  of  miracle. 
Shortly  after  he  perfected  the  telephone  Pro- 
fessor Bell  described  the  steps  which  led  to  its 
construction  That  recital  is  here  reprinted. 

A  recent  wonder  of  electric  art  is  its  penetration 
by  a  photographic  ray  of  substances  until  now 
called  opaque.  Professor  Ront  gen's  account  of 
how  he  wrought  this  feat  forms  one  of  the 
most  stirring  chapters  in  the  history  of  science. 
Next  follows  an  account  of  the  telegraph  as  it 
dispenses  with  metallic  conductors  altogether, 
and  trusts  itself  to  that  weightless  ether  which 
brings  to  the  eye  the  luminous  wave.  To  this 
succeeds  a  chapter  which  considers  what  elec- 
tricity stands  for  as  one  of  the  supreme  resources 
of  human  wit,  a  resource  transcending  even  flame 
itself,  bringing  articulate  speech  and  writing  to 
new  planes  of  facility  and  usefulness.  .  It 
is  shown  that  the  rapidity  with  which  during 
a  single  century  electricity  has  been  subdued  for 
human  service,  illustrates  that  progress  has  leaps 
as  well  as  deliberate  steps,  so  that  at  last  a  gulf, 
all  but  infinite,  divides  man  from  his  next  of  kin. 
At  this  point  we  pause  to  recall  our  debt  to  the 
physical  philosophy  which  underlies  the  calcula- 
vi 


Preface 

tions  of  the  modern  engineer.  In  such,  an  ex- 
periment as  that  of  Count  Rumford  we  observe 
how  the  cornerstone  was  laid  of  the  knowledge 
that  heat  is  motion,  and  that  motion  under  what- 
ever guise,  as  light,  electricity,  or  what  not,  is 
equally  beyond  creation  or  annihilation,  however 
elusively  it  may  glide  from  phase  to  phase  and 
vanish  from  view.  In  the  mastery  of  Flame  for 
the  superseding  of  muscle,  of  breeze  and  wa- 
ter-fall, the  chief  credit  rests  with  James  Watt, 
the  inventor  of  the  steam  engine.  Beside  him 
stands  George  Stephenson,  who  devised  the  loco- 
motive w^hich  by  abridging  space  has  lengthened 
life  and  added  to  its  highest  pleasures.  Our 
volume  closes  by  narrating  the  competition 
which  decided  that  Stephenson's  " Rocket" 
was  much  superior  to  its  rivals,  and  thus  opened 
a  new  chapter  in  the  history  of  mankind. 

GEORGE  ILES. 


CONTENTS 

FRANKLIN,  BENJAMIN 

LIGHTNING  IDENTIFIED  WITH  ELECTRICITY 

Franklin  explains  the  action  of  the  Leyden  phial  or 
jar.  Suggests  lightning-rods.  Sends  a  kite  into  the 
clouds  during  a  thunderstorm;  through  the  kite-string 
obtains  a  spark  of  lightning  which  throws  into  diver- 
gence the  loose  fibres  of  the  string,  just  as  an  ordinary 
electrical  discharge  would  do 3 

FARADAY,  MICHAEL 

PREPARING  THE  WAY    FOR   THE   ELECTRIC 
DYNAMO   AND   MOTOR 

Notices  the  inductive  effect  in  one  coil  when  the  circuit 
in  a  concentric  coil  is  completed  or  broken.  Notices 
similar  effects  when  a  wire  bearing  a  current  approaches 
another  wire  or  recedes  from  it.  Rotates  a  galvano- 
meter needle  by  an  electric  pulse.  Induces  currents 
in  coils  when  the  magnetism* is  varied  in  their  iron 
or  steel  cores.  Observes  the  lines  of  magnetic  force 
as  iron  filings  are  magnetized.  A  magnetic  bar 
moved  in  and  out  of  a  coil  of  wire  excites  electricity 
^therein, — mechanical  motion  is  converted  into  elec- 
tricity. Generates  a  current  by  spinning  a  copper 
plate  in  a  horizontal  plane 7 

HENRY,  JOSEPH 

INVENTION  OF  THE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH. 

Improves  the  electro-magnet  of  Sturgeon  by  insulating 
its  wire  with  silk  thread,  and  by  disposing  the  wire 


Contents 

in  several  coils  instead  of  one  Experiments  with  a 
large  electro-magnet  excited  by  nine  distinct  coils 
Uses  a  battery  so  powerful  that  electro-magnets  are 
produced  one  hundred  times  more  energetic  than  those 
of  Sturgeon.  Arranges  a  telegraphic  circuit  more  than 
a  mile  long  and  at  that  distance  sounds  a  bell  by 
means  of  an  electro-magnet.  ..•••',  ...  23 

ILES,  GEORGE 

THE  FIRST  ATLANTIC  CABLES 

Forerunners  at  New  York  and  Dover.  Gutta-percha 
the  indispensable  insulator.  Wire  is  used  to  sheathe 
the  cables.  Cyrus  W.  Field's  project  for  an  Atlantic 
cable.  The  first  cable  fails.  1858  so  does  the  second 
cable  1865.  A  triumph  of  courage,  1866.  The 
highway  smoothed  for  successors.  Lessons  of  the 
cable.  .  .  .  .  .' 37 

BELL,  ALEXANDER  GRAHAM 
THE  INVENTION  OF  THE  TELEPHONE 

Indebted  to  his  father's  study  of  the  vocal  organs  as 
they  form  sounds.  Examines  the  Helmholtz  method 
for  the  analysis  and  synthesis  of  vocal  sounds  Sug- 
gests the  electrical  actuation  of  tuning-forks  and  the 
electrical  transmission  of  their  tones  Distinguishes 
intermittent,  pulsatory  and  undulatory  currents. 
Devises  as  his  first  articulating  telephone  a  harp  of 
steel  rods  thrown  into  vibration  by  electro-magnetism. 
Exhibits  optically  the  vibrations  of  sound,  using  a 
preparation  of  a  human  ear:  is  struck  by  the  efficiency 
of  a  slight  aural  membrane.  Attaches  a  bit  of  clock 
spring  to  a  piece  of  goldbeater's  skin,  speaks  to  it,  an 
audible  message  is  received  at  a  distant  and  similar 
device.  This  contrivance  improved  is  shown  at  the 
Centennial  Exhibition,  Philadelphia,  1876.  At  first 
the  same  kind  of  instrument  transmitted  and  delivered 
a  message;  soon  two  distinct  instruments  were  in- 
X 


Contents 

vented  for  transmitting  and  for  receiving.  Extremely 
small  magnets  suffice.  A  single  blade  of  grass  forms 
a  telephonic  circuit 57 

DAM,  H.  J.  W. 

PHOTOGRAPHING  THE  UNSEEN 

Rontgen  indebted  to  the  researches  of  Faraday, 
Clerk-Maxwell,  Hertz,  Lodge  and  Lenard  The  human 
optic  nerve  is  affected  by  a  very  small  range  in  the  waves 
that  exist  in  the  ether.  Beyond  the  visible  spectrum 
of  common  light  are  vibrations  which  have  long  been 
known  as  heat  or  as  photographically  active  Crookes 
in  a  vacuous  bulb  produced  soft  light  from  high  tension 
electricity  Lenard  found  that  rays  from  a  Crookes' 
tube  passed  through  substances  opaque  to  common 
light.  Rontgen  extended  these  experiments  and  used 
the  ravs  photographically,  taking  pictures  of  the  bones 
of  the  hand  through  living  flesh,  and  so  on.  ....  87 

ILES,  GEORGE 

THE  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH 

What  may  follow  upon  electric  induction.  Telegraphy 
to  a  moving  train.  The  Preece  induction  method: 
its  limits.  Marconi's  system.  His  precursors,  Hertz, 
Onesti,  Branly  and  Lodge.  The  coherer  and  the 
vertical  wire  form  the  essence  of  the  apparatus.  Wire- 
less telegraphy  at  sea 109 

ILES,  GEORGE 

ELECTRICITY,  WHAT  ITS  MASTERY  MEANS: 
WITH  A  REVIEW  AND  A  PROSPECT 

Electricity    does    all    that    fire  ever  did,   does  it  better, 
and  performs  uncounted  services  impossible  to  flame. 
Its  mastery  means  as  great  a  forward  stride  as  the 
xi 


Contents 


subjugation  of  fire.     A  minor  invention  or  discovery 
simply  adds  to  human  resources."  a  supreme  conquest 
as  of  flame  or  electricity,  is  a  multiplier  and  lifts  art 
and  science  to  a  new  plane.     Growth  is    slow,  flower- 
ing is  rapid:  progress  at  times  is  so  quick  of  pace  as 
virtually  to  become  a  leap.     The  mastery  of  electricity 
based  on  that  of  fire.     Electricity  vastly  wider  of  range 
than  heat:  it  is  energy  in  its  most  available  and  desirable 
phase.     The  telegraph  and  the  telephone  contrasted 
with    the    signal    fire.        Electricity    as    the    servant 
of  mechanic  and   engineer.     Household    uses    of    the 
current.      Electricity  as  an    agent    of    research  now 
examines      Nature     in      fresh      aspects.       The    inves- 
tigator and  the  commercial  exploiter  render  aid  to  one 
another.      Social  benefits  of  electricity,  in  telegraphy, 
iii  quick  travel.     The  current  should  serve  every  city 
house 125 

RUMFORD,  COUNT  (BENJAMIN  THOMP- 
SON) 
HEAT   AND   MOTION   IDENTIFIED 

Observes  that  in  boring  a  cannon  much  heat  is  gen- 
erated: the  longer  the  boring  lasts,  the  more  heat  is 
produced.  He  argues  that  since  heat  without  limit 
may  be  thus  produced  by  motion,  heat  must  be  motion.iss 

STEPHENSON,  GEORGE 

THE    "ROCKET"     LOCOMOTIVE     AND     ITS 
VICTORY 

Shall  it  be  a  system  of  stationary  engines  or  loco- 
motives? The  two  best  practical  engineers  of  the 
day  are  in  favour  of  stationary  engines.  A  test  of 
locomotives  is,  however,  proffered,  and  George  Steph- 
enson  and  his  son,  Robert,  djscuss  how  they  may  best 
build  an  engine  to  win  the  first  prize.  They  adopt 
a  steam  blast  to  stimulate  the  draft  of  the  furnace, 
Xli 


Contents 


and  raise  steam  quickly  in  a  boiler  having  twenty- 
five  small  fire-tubes  of  copper.  The  "Rocket"  with 
a  maximum  speed  of  twenty-nine  miles  an  hour  dis- 
tances its  rivals.  With  its  load  of  water  its  weight 
was  but  four  and  a  quarter  tons.  ......  163 


LITTLE  MASTERPIECES   OF  SCIENCE 


FRANKLIN    IDENTIFIES    LIGHTNING 
WITH    ELECTRICITY 

[From  Franklin's  Works,  edited  in  ten  volumes  by  John 
Bigelow,  Vol.  I,  pages  276-281,  copyright  by  G.  P.  Putnam's 
Sons,  New  York.fl 

DR.  STUBER,  the  author  of  the  first  continua- 
tion of  Franklin's  life,  gives  this  account  of  the 
electrical  experiments  of  Franklin: — 

"His  observations  he  communicated,  in  a 
series  of  letters,  to  his  friend  Collinson,  the  first 
of  which  is  dated  March  28,  1747.  In  these  he 
shows  the  power  of  points  in  drawing  and  throw- 
ing off  the  electrical  matter,  which  had  hitherto 
escaped  the  notice  of  electricians.  He  also 
made  the  grand  discovery  of  a  plus  and  minus, 
or  of  a  positive  and  negative  state  of  electricity. 
We  give  him  the  honour  of  this  without  hesita- 
tion; although  the  English  have  claimed  it  for 
their  countryman,  Dr.  Watson.  Watson's  paper 
is  dated  January  21,  1748;  Franklin's  July  n, 
1747,  several  months  prior.  Shortly  after 
Franklin,  from  his  principles  of  the  plus  and 
minus  state,  explained  in  a  satisfactory  manner 
the  phenomena  of  the  Ley  den  phial,  first  ob- 
served by  Mr.  Cuneus,  or  by  Professor  Muschen- 
broeck,  of  Ley  den,  which  had  much  perplexed 
philosophers.  He  showed  clearly  that  when 
charged  the  bottle  contained  no  more  electricity 
3 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

than  before,  but  that  as  much  was  taken  from 
one  side  as  thrown  on  the  other;  and  that  to 
discharge  it  nothing  was  necessary  but  to  pro- 
duce a  communication  between  the  two  sides  by 
which  the  equilibrium  might  be  restored,  and 
that  then  no  signs  of  electricity  would  remain. 
He  afterwards  demonstrated  by  experiments 
that  the  electricity  did  not  reside  in  the  coating 
as  had  been  supposed,  but  in  the  pores  of  the 
glass  itself.  After  the  phial  was  charged  he 
removed  the  coating,  and  found  that  upon  apply- 
ing a  new  coating  the  shock  might  still  be  re- 
ceived. In  the  year  1749,  he  first  suggested 
his  idea  of  explaining  the  phenomena  of  thunder 
gusts  and  of  aurora  borealis  upon  electric 
principles.  He  points  out  many  particulars  in 
which  lightning  and  electricity  agree;  and  he 
adduces  many  facts,  and  reasonings  from  facts, 
in  support  of  his  positions. 

"In  the  same  year  he  conceived  the  astonish- 
ingly bold  and  grand  idea  of  ascertaining  the 
truth  of  his  doctrine  by  actually  drawing  down 
the  lightning,  by  means  of  sharp  pointed  iron 
rods  raised  into  the  regions  of  the  clouds.  Even 
in  this  uncertain  state  his  passion  to  be  useful 
to  mankind  displayed  itself  in  a  powerful  man- 
ner. Admitting  the  identity  of  electricity  and 
lightning,  and  knowing  the  power  of  points  in 
repelling  bodies  charged  with  electricity,  and  in 
conducting  fires  silently  and  imperceptibly,  he 
suggested  the  idea  of  securing  houses,  ships  and 
the  like  from  being  damaged  by  lightning,  by 
4 


Franklin   Identifies   Lightning 

erecting  pointed  rods  that  should  rise  some  feet 
above  the  most  elevated  part,  and  descend  some 
feet  into  the  ground  or  water.  The  effect  of 
these  he  concluded  would  be  either  to  prevent 
a  stroke  by  repelling  the  cloud  beyond  the  strik- 
ing distance  or  by  drawing  off  the  electrical  fire 
which  it  contained;  or,  if  they  could  not  effect  this 
they  would  at  least  conduct  the  electrical  matter 
to  the  earth  without  any  injury  to  the  building. 
"It  was  not  until  the  summer  of  1752  that  he 
was  enabled  to  complete  his  grand  and  unparal- 
leled discovery  by  experiment.  The  plan  which 
he  had  originally  proposed  was,  to  erect,  on  some 
high  tower  or  elevated  place,  a  sentry-box  from 
which  should  rise  a  pointed  iron  rod,  insulated 
by  being  fixed  in  a  cake  of  resin.  Electrified 
clouds  passing  over  this  would,  he  conceived, 
impart  to  it  a  portion  of  their  electricity  which 
would  be  rendered  evident  to  the  senses  by  sparks 
being  emitted  when  a  key,  the  knuckle,  or  other 
conductor,  was  presented  to  it.  Philadelphia 
at  this  time  afforded  no  opportunity  of  trying 
an  experiment  of  this  kind.  While  Franklin  was 
waiting  for  the  erection  of  a  spire,  it  occurred  to 
him  that  he  might  have  more  ready  access  to  the 
region  of  clouds  by  means  of  a  common  kite. 
He  prepared  one  by  fastening  two  cross  sticks 
to  a  silk  handkerchief,  which  would  not  suffer 
so  much  from  the  rain  as  paper.  To  the  upright 
stick  was  affixed  an  iron  point.  The  string  was, 
as  usual,  of  hemp,  except  the  lower  end,  which 
was  silk.  Where  the  hempen  string  terminated, 
5 


Masterpieces   of  Science 

a  key  was  fastened.  With  this  apparatus,  on 
the  appearance  of  a  thundergust  approaching, 
he  went  out  into  the  commons,  accompanied  by 
his  son,  to  whom  alone  he  communicated  his 
intentions,  well  knowing  the  ridicule  which,  too 
generally  for  the  interest  of  science,  awaits  un- 
successful experiments  in  philosophy.  He  placed 
""himself  under  a  shed,  to  avoid  the  rain;  his  kite 
was  raised,  a  thunder-cloud  passed  over  it,  no 
'  sign  of  electricity  appeared.  He  almost  de- 
spaired of  success,  when  suddenly  he  observed 
the  loose  fibres  of  his  string  to  move  towards  an 
erect  position.  He  now  presented  his  knuckle 
to  the  key  and  received  a  strong  spark.  How 
exquisite  must  his  sensations  have  been  at  this 
moment !  On  his  experiment  depended  the  fate 
of  his  theory.  If  he  succeeded,  his  name  would 
rank  high  among  those  who  had  improved 
"science;  if  he  failed,  he  must  inevitably  be  sub- 
jected to  the  derision  of  mankind,  or,  what  is 
worse,  their  pity,  as  a  well-meaning  man,  but  a 
_w^eak,  silly  projector.  The  anxiety  with  which 
he  looked  for  the  result  of  his  experiment  may 
easily  be  conceived.  Doubts  and  despair  had 
begun  to  prevail,  when  the  fact  was  ascertained, 
in  so  clear  a  manner,  that  even  the  most  incredul- 
ous could  no  longer  withhold  their  assent.  Re- 
peated sparks  were  drawn  from  the  key,  a  phial 
was  charged,  a  shock  given,  and  all  the  experi- 
ments made  which  are  usually  performed  with 
electricity. " 


FARADAY'S   DISCOVERIES   LEADING  UP 

TO    THE    ELECTRIC    DYNAMO 

AND    MOTOR 

[Michael  Faraday  was  for  many  years  Professor  of  Natural 
Philosophy  at  the  Royal  Institution,  London,  where  his 
researches  did  more  to  subdue  electricity  to  the  service  of 
man  than  those  of  any  other  physicist  who  ever  lived.  "Far- 
aday as  a  Discoverer,"  by  Professor  John  Tyndall  (his  suc- 
cessor) depicts  a  mind  of  the  rarest  ability  and  a  character 
of  the  utmost  charm.  This  biography  is  published  by 
D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York:  the  extracts  which  follow 
are  from  the  third  chapter  .Q 

IN  1831  we  have  Faraday  at  the  climax  of  his 
intellectual  strength,  forty  years  of  age,  stored 
with  knowledge  and  full  of  original  power. 
Through  reading,  lecturing,  and  experimenting, 
he  had  become  thoroughly  familiar  with  electri- 
cal science:  he  saw  where  light  was  needed  and 
expansion  possible.  The  phenomena  of  ordinary 
electric  induction  belonged,  as  it  were,  to  the 
alphabet  of  his  knowledge :  he  knew  that  under  or- 
dinary circumstances  the  presence  of  an  electrified 
body  was  sufficient  to  excite,,  by  induction,  an 
unelectrified  body.  He  knew  that  the  wire 
which  carried  an  electric  current  was  an  electri- 
fied body,  and  still  that  all  attempts  had  failed 
to  make  it  excite  in  other  wires  a  state  similar 
to  its  own. 

What  was  the  reason  of  this  failure  ?  Faraday 
7 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

never  could  work  from  the  experiments  of  others, 
however  clearly  described.  He  knew  well  that 
from  every  experiment  issues  a  kind  of  radiation, 
luminous,  in  different  degrees  to  different  minds, 
and  he  hardly  trusted  himself  to  reason  upon  an 
experiment  that  he  had  not  seen.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1831  he  began  to  repeat  the  experiments 
with  electric  currents,  which,  up  to  that  time, 
had  produced  no  positive  result.  And  here,  for 
the  sake  of  younger  inquirers,  if  not  for  the  sake 
of  us  all,  it  is  worth  while  to  dwell  for  a  moment 
on  a  power  which  Faraday  possessed  in  an  extra- 
ordinary degree.  He  united  vast  strength  with 
perfect  flexibility.  His  momentum  was  that 
of  a  river,  which  combines  weight  and  directness 
with  the  ability  to  yield  to  the  flexures  of  its  bed. 
The  intentness  of  his  vision  in  any  direction  did 
not  apparently  diminish  his  power  of  perception 
in  other  directions ;  and  when  he  attacked  a  sub- 
ject, expecting  results,  he  had  the  faculty  of 
keeping  his  mind  alert,  so  that  results  different 
from  those  which  he  expected  should  not  escape 
him  through  pre-occupation. 

He  began  his  experiments  "on  the  induction 
of  electric  currents"  by  composing  a  helix  of  two 
insulated  wires,  which  were  wound  side  by  side 
round  the  same  wooden  cylinder.  One  of  these 
wires  he  connected  with  a  voltaic  battery  of  ten 
cells,  and  the  other  with  a  sensitive  galvanometer. 
When  connection  with  the  battery  was  made, 
and  while  the  current  flowed,  no  effect  what- 
ever was  observed  at  the  galvanometer.  But 


Faraday ' s   Discoveries 

he  never  accepted  an  experimental  result,  until  he 
had  applied  to  it  the  utmost  power  at  his  com- 
mand. He  raised  his  battery  from  ten  cells  to 
one  hundred  and  twenty  cells,  but  without  avail. 
The  current  flowed  calmly  through  the  battery 
wire  without  producing,  during  its  flow,  any 
sensible^result  upon  the  galvanometer. 

"  During  its  flow,  "  and  this  was  the  time  when 
an  effect  was  expected — but  here  Faraday's 
power  of  lateral  vision,  separating,  as  it  were 
from  the  line  of  expectation,  came  into  play — 
he  noticed  that  a  feeble  movement  of  the  needle 
always  occurred  at  the  moment  when  he  made 
contact  with  the  battery;  that  the  needle  would 
afterwards  return  to  its  former  position  and  re- 
main quietly  there  unaffected  by  the  flowing 
current.  At  the  moment,  however,  when  the 
circuit  was  interrupted  the  needle  again  moved, 
and  in  a  direction  opposed  to  that  observed  on 
the  completion  of  the  circuit. 

This  result,  and  others  of  a  similar  kind,  led 
him  to  the  conclusion  "that  the  battery  current 
through  the  one  wire  did  in  reality  induce  a 
similar  current  through  the  other;  but  that  it 
continued  for  an  instant  only,  and  partook  more 
of  the  nature  of  the  electric  wave  from  a  common 
Ley  den  jar  than  of  the  current  from  a  voltaic 
battery."  The  momentary  currents  thus  gen- 
erated were  called  induced  currents,  while  the 
current  which  generated  them  was  called  the 
inducing  current.  It  was  immediately  proved 
that  the  current  generated  at  making  the  circuit 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

was  always  opposed  in  direction  to  its  generator, 
while  that  developed  on  the  rupture  of  the  cir- 
cuit coincided  in  direction  with  the  inducing 
current.  It  appeared  as  if  the  current  on  its 
first  rush  through  the  primary  wire  sought  a  pur- 
chase in  the  secondary  one,  and,  by  a  kind  of 
kick,  impelled  backward  through  the  latter  an 
electric  wave,  which  subsided  as  soon  as  the 
primary  current  was  fully  established. 

Faraday,  for  a  time,  believed  that  the  second- 
ary wire,  though  quiescent  when  the  primary 
current  had  been  once  established,  was  not  in  its 
natural  condition,  its  return  to  that  condition 
being  declared  by  the  current  observed  at  break- 
ing the  circuit.  He  called  this  hypothetical 
state  of  the  wire  the  electrotonic  state:  he  after- 
wards abandoned  this  hypothesis,  but  seemed  to 
return  to  it  in  after  life.  The  term  electro-tonic 
is  also  preserved  by  Professor  Du  Bois  Reymond 
to  express  a  certain  electric  condition  of  the 
nerves,  and  Professor  Clerk  Maxwell  has  ably 
denned  and  illustrated  the  hypothesis  in  the 
Tenth  Volume  of  the  ' '  Transactions  of  the  Cam- 
bridge Philosophical  Society. " 

The  mere  approach  of  a  wire  forming  a  closed 
curve  to  a  second  wire  through  which  a  voltaic 
current  flowed  was  then  shown  by  Faraday  to  be 
sufficient  to  arouse  in  the  neutral  wire  an  induced 
current,  opposed  in  direction  to  the  inducing 
current;  the  withdrawal  of  the  wire  also  gener- 
ated a  current  having  the  same  direction  as  the 
inducing  current;  those  currents  existed  only 
10 


Faraday's   Discoveries 

during  the  time  of  approach  or  withdrawal,  and 
when  neither  the  primary  nor  the  secondary  wire 
was  in  motion,  no  matter  how  close  their  prox- 
imity might  be,  no  induced  current  was  generated. 
Faraday  has  been  called  a  purely  inductive 
philosopher.  A  great  deal  of  nonsense  is,  I  fear, 
uttered  in  this  land  of  England  about  induction 
and  deduction.  Some  profess  to  befriend  the 
one,  some  the  other,  while  the  real  vocation  of 
an  investigator,  like  Faraday,  consists  in  the  in- 
cessant marriage  of  both.  He  was  at  this  time 
full  of  the  theory  of  Ampere,  and  it  cannot  be 
doubted  that  numbers  of  his  experiments  were 
executed  merely  to  test  his  deductions  from 
that  theory.  Starting  from  the  discovery  of 
Oersted,  the  celebrated  French  philosopher  had 
shown  that  all  the  phenomena  of  magnetism  then 
known  might  be  reduced  to  the  mutual  attractions 
and  repulsions  of  electric  currents.  Magnetism 
had  been  produced  from  electricity,  and  Faraday, 
who  all  his  life  long  entertained  a  strong  belief  in 
such  reciprocal  actions,  now  attempted  to  effect 
the  evolution  of  electricity  from  magnetism. 
Round  a  welded  iron  ring  he  placed  two  distinct 
coils  of  covered  wire,  causing  the  coils  to  occupy 
opposite  halves  of  the  ring.  Connecting  the  ends 
of  one  of  the  coils  with  a  galvanometer,  he  found 
that  the  moment  the  ring  was  magnetized,  by 
sending  a  current  through  the  other  coil,  the  gal- 
vanometer needle  whirled  round  four  or  five 
times  in  succession.  The  action,  as  before,  was 
that  of  a  pulse,  which  vanished  immediately. 
11 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

On  interrupting  the  current,  a  whirl  of  the  needle 
in  the  opposite  direction  occurred.  It  was  only 
during  the  time  of  magnetization  or  demagnetiza- 
tion that  these  effects  were  produced.  The  in- 
duced currents  declared  a  change  of  condition 
only,  and" they  vanished  the  moment  the  act  of 
magnetization  or  demagnetization  was  complete. 
The  effects  obtained  with  the  welded  ring  were 
also  obtained  with  straight  bars  of  iron.  Whether 
the  bars  were  magnetized  by  the  electric  current, 
or  were  excited  by  the  contact  of  permanent  steel 
magnets,  induced  currents  were  always  gener- 
ated during  the  rise,  and  during  the  subsidence 
of  the  magnetism.  The  use  of  iron  was  then 
abandoned,  and  the  same  effects  were  obtained 
by  merely  thrusting  a  permanent  steel  magnet 
into  a  coil  of  wire.  A  rush  of  electricity  through 
the  coil  accompanied  the  insertion  of  the  magnet ; 
an  equal  rush  in  the  opposite  direction  accom- 
panied its  withdrawal.  The  precision  with 
which  Faraday  describes  these  results,  and  the 
completeness  with  which  he  denned  the  bound- 
aries of  his  facts,  are  wonderful.  The  magnet, 
for  example,  must  not  be  passed  quite  through 
the  coil,  but  only  half  through,  for  if  passed 
wholly  through,  the  needle  is  stopped  as  by  a 
blow,  and  then  he  shows  how  this  blow  results 
from  a  reversal  of  the  electric  wave  in  the  helix. 
He  next  operated  with  the  powerful  permanent 
magnet  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  obtained  with 
it,  in  an  exalted  degree,  all  the  foregoing  phe- 
nomena. 

12 


Faraday's   Discoveries 

And  now  he  turned  the  light  of  these  discover- 
ies upon  the  darkest  physical  phenomenon  of 
that  day.  Arago  had  discovered  in  1824,  that 
a  disk  of  non-magnetic  metal  had  the  power  of 
bringing  a  vibrating  magnetic  needle  suspended 
over  it  rapidly  to  rest;  and  that  on  causing  the 
disk  to  rotate  the  magnetic  needle  rotated  along 
with  it.  When  both  were  quiescent,  there  was 
not  the  slightest  measurable  attraction  or  re- 
pulsion exerted  between  the  needle  and  the  disk ; 
still  when  in  motion  the  disk  was  competent 
to  drag  after  it,  not  only  a  light  needle,  but  a 
heavy  magnet.  The  question  had  been  probed 
and  investigated  with  admirable  skill  by  both 
Arago  and  Ampere,  and  Poisson  had  published  a 
theoretic  memoir  on  the  subject;  but  no  cause 
could  be  assigned  for  so  extraordinary -an  action. 
It  had  also  been  examined  in  this  country  by 
two  celebrated  men,  Mr.  Babbage  and  Sir  John 
Herschel;  but  it  still  remained  a  mystery.  Fara- 
day always  recommended  the  suspension  of 
judgment  in  cases  of  doubt.  "I  have  always 
admired,"  he  says,  "the  prudence  and  philo- 
sophical reserve  shown  by  M.  Arago  in  resisting 
the  temptations  to  give  a  theory  of  the  effect  he 
had  discovered,  so  long  as  he  could  not  devise  one 
which  was  perfect  in  its  application,  and  in  re- 
fusing to  assent  to  the  imperfect  theories  of 
others."  Now,  however,  the  time  for  theory 
had  come.  Faraday  saw  mentally  the  rotating 
disk,  under  the  operation  of  the  magnet,  flooded 
with  his  induced  currents,  and  from  the  known 
13 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

laws  of  interaction  between  currents  and  mag- 
nets he  hoped  to  deduce  the  motion  observed  by 
Arago.  That  hope  he  realized,  showing  by 
actual  experiment  that  when  his  disk  rotated 
currents  passed  through  it,  their  position  and 
direction  being  such  as  must,  in  accordance  with 
the  established  laws  of  electro-magnetic  action, 
produce  the  observed  rotation. 

Introducing  the  edge  of  his  disk  between  the 
poles  of  the  large  horseshoe  magnet  of  the  Royal 
Society,  and  connecting  the  axis  and  the  edge 
of  the  disk,  each  by  a  wire  with  a  galvanometer, 
he  obtained,  when  the  disk  was  turned  round, 
a  constant  flow  of  electricity.  The  direction  of 
the  current  was  determined  by  the  direction  of 
the  motion,  the  current  being  reversed  when  the 
rotation  was  reversed.  He  now  states  the  law 
which  rules  the  production  of  currents  in  both 
disks  and  wires,  and  in  so  doing  uses,  for  the 
first  time,  a  phrase  which  has  since  become 
famous.  When  iron  filings  are  scattered  over  a 
magnet,  the  particles  of  iron  arrange  themselves 
in  certain  determined  lines  called  magnetic  curves. 
In  1831,  Faraday  for  the  first  time  called  these 
curves  "lines  of  magnetic  force; "  and  he  showed 
that  to  produce  induced  currents  neither  approach 
to  nor  withdrawal  from  a  magnetic  source,  or 
centre,  or  pole,  was  essential,  but  that  it  was 
only  necessary  to  cut  appropriately  the  lines  of 
magnetic  force.  Faraday's  first  paper  on 
Magneto-electric  Induction,  which  I  have 
here  endeavoured  to  condense,  was  read 
14 


Faraday's   Discoveries 

before     the     Royal     Society    on    the    24th    of 
November,   1831. 

On  January  12,  1832,  he  communicated  to  the 
Royal  Society  a  second  paper  on  "Terrestrial 
Magneto-electric  Induction,"  which  was  chosen 
as  the  Bakerian  Lecture  for  the  year.  He  placed 
a  bar  of  iron  in  a  coil  of  wire,  and  lifting  the  bar 
into  the  direction  of  the  dipping  needle,  he  ex- 
cited by  this  action  a  current  in  the  coil.  On 
reversing  the  bar,  a  current  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion rushed  through  the  wire.  The  same  effect 
was  produced,  when,  on  holding  the  helix  in  the 
line  of  dip,  a  bar  of  iron  was  thrust  into  it.  Here, 
however,  the  earth  acted  on  the  coil  through 
the  intermediation  of  the  bar  of  iron.  He 
abandoned  the  bar  and  simply  set  a  copper-plate 
spinning  in  a  horizontal  plane ;  he  knew  that  the 
earth's  lines  of  magnetic  force  then  crossed  the 
plate  at  an  angle  of  about  70°.  When  the  plate 
spun  round,  the  lines  of  force  were  intersected 
and  induced  currents  generated,  which  produced  ( 
their  proper  effect  when  carried  from  the  plate  to 
the  galvanometer.  "When  the  plate  was  in  the 
magnetic  meridian,  or  in  any  other  plane  coincid- 
ing with  the  magnetic  dip,  then  its  rotation  pro- 
duced no  effect  upon  the  galvanometer. ' ' 

At  the  suggestion  of  a  mind  fruitful  in  sugges- 
tions of  a  profound  and  philosophic  character — 
1  mean  that  of  Sir  John  Herschel — Mr.  Barlow, 
of  Woolwich,  had  experimented  with  a  rotating 
iron  shell.  Mr.  Christie  had  also  performed  an 
elaborate  series  of  experiments  on  a  rotating 
15 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

iron  disk.  Both  of  them  had  found  that  when 
in  rotation  the  body  exercised  a  peculiar  action 
upon  the  magnetic  needle,  deflecting  it  in  a  man- 
ner which  was  not  observed  during  quiescence; 
but  neither  of  them  was  aware  at  the  time  of  the 
agent  which  produced  this  extraordinary  deflec- 
tion. They  ascribed  it  to  some  change  in  the 
magnetism  of  the  iron  shell  and  disk. 

But  Faraday  at  once  saw  that  his  induced 
currents  must  come  into  play  here,  and  he  imme- 
diately obtained  them  from  an  iron  disk.  With 
a  hollow  brass  ball,  moreover,  he  produced  the 
effects  obtained  by  Mr.  Barlow.  Iron  was  in  no 
way  necessary:  the  only  condition  of  success  was 
that  the  rotating  body  should  be  of  a  character 
to  admit  of  the  formation  of  currents  in  its  sub- 
stance: it  must,  in  other  words,  be  a  conductor 
of  electricity  The  higher  the  conducting  power 
the  more  copious  were  the  currents.  He  now 
passes  from  his  little  brass  globe  to  the  globe  of 
the  earth  He  plays  like  a  magician  with  the 
earth's  magnetism.  He  sees  the  invisible  lines 
along  which  its  magnetic  action  is  exerted  and 
sweeping  his  wand  across  these  lines  evokes  this 
new  power.  Placing  a  simple  loop  of  wire  round 
a  magnetic  needle  he  bends  its  upper  portion  to 
the  west:  the  north  pole  of  the  needle  immedi- 
ately swerves  to  the  east:  he  bends  his  loop  to 
the  east,  and  the  north  poles  moves  to  the  west. 
Suspending  a  common  bar  magnet  in  a  vertical 
position,  he  causes  it  to  spin  round  its  own  axis. 
Its  pole  being  connected  with  one  end  of  a  gal- 
16 


Faraday's   Discoveries 

variometer  wire,  and  its  equator  with  the  other 
end,  electricity  rushes  round  the  galvanometer 
from  the  rotating  magnet.  He  remarks  upon 
the  "singular  independence"  of  the  magnetism 
and  the  body  of  the  magnet  which  carries  it. 
The  steel  behaves  as  if  it  were  isolated  from  its 
own  magnetism. 

And  then  his  thoughts  suddenly  widen,  and 
he  asks  himself  whether  the  rotating  earth  does 
not  generate  induced  currents  as  it  turns  round 
its  axis  from  west  to  east.  In  his  experiment 
with  the  twirling  magnet  the  galvanometer  wire 
remained  at  rest;  one  portion  of  the  circuit  was 
in  motion  relatively  to  another  portion.  But  in 
the  case  of  the  twirling  planet  the  galvanometer 
wire  would  necessarily  be  carried  along  with  the 
earth;  there  would  be  no  relative  motion.  What 
must  be  the  consequence  ?  Take  the  case  of  a 
telegraph  wire  with  its  two  terminal  plates 
dipped  into  the  earth,  and  suppose  the  wire  to  lie 
in  the  magnetic  meridian.  The  ground  under- 
neath the  wire  is  influenced  like  the  wire  itself  by 
the  earth's  rotation;  if  a  current  from  south  to 
north  be  generated  in  the  wire,  a  similar  current 
from  south  to  north  would  be  generated  in  the 
earth  under  the  wire;  these  currents  would  run 
against  the  same  terminal  plates,  and  thus  neu- 
tralize each  other. 

This  inference  appears  inevitable,  but  his 
profound  vision  perceived  its  possible  invalidity. 
He  saw  that  it  was  at  least  possible  that  the  dif- 
ference of  conducting  power  between  the  earth 
17 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

and  the  wire  might  give  one  an  advantage  over 
the  other,  and  that  thus  a  residual  or  differential 
current  might  be  obtained.  He  combined  wires 
of  different  materials,  and  caused  them  to  act  in 
opposition  to  each  other,  but  found  the  combina- 
tion ineffectual.  The  more  copious  flow  in  the 
better  conductor  was  exactly  counterbalanced 
by  the  resistance  of  the  worst.  Still,  though 
experiment  was  thus  emphatic,  he  would  clear 
his  mind  of  all  discomfort  by  operating  on  the 
earth  itself.  He  went  to  the  round  lake  near 
Kensington  Palace,  and  stretched  four  hundred 
and  eighty  feet  of  copper  wire,  north  and  south, 
over  the  lake,  causing  plates  soldered  to  the  wire 
at  its  ends  to  dip  into  the  water.  The  copper 
wire  was  severed  at  the  middle,  and  the  severed 
ends  connected  with  a  galvanometer.  No 
effect  whatever  was  observed.  But  though 
quiescent  water  gave  no  effect,  moving  water 
might.  He  therefore  worked  at  London  Bridge 
for  three  days  during  the  ebb  and  flow  of  the 
tide,  but  without  any  satisfactory  result.  Still 
he  urges,  "Theoretically  it  seems  a  necessary  con- 
sequence, that  where  water  is  flowing  there  elec- 
tric currents  should  be  formed.  If  a  line  be  imr 
agined  passing  from  Dover  to  Calais  through  the 
sea,  and  returning  through  the  land,  beneath  the 
water,  to  Dover,  it  traces  out  a  circuit  of  con- 
ducting matter  one  part  of  which,  when  the 
water  moves  up  or  down  the  channel,  is  cutting 
the  magnetic  curves  of  the  earth,  while  the  other 
is  relatively  at  rest.  .  .  .  There  is  every 
18 


Faraday '  s   D isco veries 

reason  to  believe  that  currents  do  run  in  the 
general  direction  of  the  circuit  described,  either 
one  way  or  the  other,  according  as  the  passage  of 
the  waters  is  up  or  down  the  channel."  This 
was  written  before  the  submarine  cable  was 
thought  of,  and  he  once  informed  me  that  actual 
observation  upon  that  cable  had  been  found  to  be 
in  accordance  with  his  theoretic  deduction. 

Three  years  subsequent  to  the  publication 
of  these  researches,  that  is  to  say  on  January  29, 
1835,  Faraday  read  before  the  Royal  Society  a 
paper  "On  the  influence  by  induction  of  an  elec- 
tric current  upon  itself. ' '  A  shock  and  spark 
of  a  peculiar  character  had  been  observed  by  a 
young  man  named  William  Jenkin,  who  must 
have  been  a  youth  of  some  scientific  promise,  but 
who,  as  Faraday  once  informed  me,  was  dis- 
suaded by  his  own  father  from  having  anything 
to  do  with  science.  The  investigation  of  the 
fact  noticed  by  Mr.  Jenkin  led  Faraday  to  the 
discovery  of  the  extra  current,  or  the  current 
induced  in  the  primary  wire  itself  at  the  moments 
of  making  and  breaking  contact,  the  phenomena 
of  which  he  described  and  illustrated  in  the 
beautiful  and  exhaustive  paper  referred  to. 

Seven  and  thirty  years  have  passed  since  the 
discovery  of  magneto-electricity;  but,  if  we 
except  the  extra  current,  until  quite  recently 
nothing  of  moment  was  added  to  the  subject. 
Faraday  entertained  the  opinion  that  the  dis- 
coverer of  a  great  law  or  principle  had  a  right  to 
the  ' '  spoils ' ' — this  was  his  term — arising  from  its 
19 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

illustration;  and  guided  by  the  principle  he  had 
discovered,  his  wonderful  mind,  aided  by  his 
wonderful  ten  fingers,  overran  in  a  single  autumn 
this  vast  domain,  and  hardly  left  behind  him  the 
shred  of  a  fact  to  be  gathered  by  his  successors. 
And  here  the  question  may  arise  in  some  minds, 
What  is  the  use  of  it  all  ?  The  answer  is,  that  if 
man's  intellectual  nature  thirsts  for  knowledge 
then  knowledge  is  useful  because  it  satisfies  this 
thirst.  If  you  demand  practical  ends,  you  must, 
I  think,  expand  your  definition  of  the  term  prac- 
tical, and  make  it  include  all  that  elevates  and 
enlightens  the  intellect,  as  well  as  all  that  minis- 
ters to  the  bodily  health  and  comfort  of  men. 
Still,  if  needed,  an  answer  of  another  kind  might 
be  given  to  the  question  "what  is  its  use?" 
As  far  as  electricity  has  been  applied  for  medical 
purposes,  it  has  been  almost  exclusively  Fara- 
day's electricity.  You  have  noticed  those  lines 
of  wire  which  cross  the  streets  of  London.  It  is 
Faraday's  currents  that  speed  from  place  to 
place  through  these  wires.  Approaching  the 
point  of  Dungeness,  the  mariner  sees  an  unusually 
brilliant  light,  and  from  the  noble  lighthouse 
of  La  Heve  the  same  light  flashes  across  the  sea. 
These  are  Faraday's  sparks  exalted  by  suitable 
machinery  to  sun-like  splendour.  At  the  present 
moment  the  Board  of  Trade  and  the  Brethren 
of  the  Trinity  House,  as  well  as  the  Commissioners 
of  Northern  Lights,  are  contemplating  the  in- 
troduction of  the  Magneto-electric  Light  at 
numerous  points  upon  our  coasts;  and  future 
20 


Faraday's   Discoveries 

generations  will  be  able  to  refer  to  those  guiding 
stars  in  answer  to  the  question,  what  has  been 
the  practical  use  of  the  labours  of  Faraday  ?  But 
I  would  again  emphatically  say,  that  his  work 
needs  no  justification,  and  that  if  he  had  allowed 
his  vision  to  be  disturbed  by  considerations  re- 
garding the  practical  use  of  his  discoveries,  those 
discoveries  would  never  have  been  made  by  him. 
"I  have  rather,"  he  writes  in  1831,  "been  de- 
sirous of  discovering  new  facts  and  new  relations 
dependent  on  magneto-electric  induction,  than 
of  exalting  the  force  of  those  already  obtained; 
being  assured  that  the  latter  would  find  their 
full  development  hereafter." 

In  1817,  when  lecturing  before  a  private  so- 
ciety in  London  on  the  element  chlorine,  Faraday 
thus  expresses  himself  with  reference  to  this 
question  of  utility.  "Before  leaving  this  sub- 
ject, I  will  point  out  the  history  of  this  substance 
as  an  answer  to  those  who  are  in  the  habit  of 
saying  to  every  new  fact,  'What  is  its  use  ?'  Dr. 
Franklin  says  to  such,  'What  is  the  use  of  an  in- 
fant ? '  The  answer  of  the  experimentalist  is, 
'Endeavour  to  make  it  useful. '  When  Scheele 
discovered  this  substance,  it  appeared  to  have  no 
use;  it  was  in  its  infancy  and  useless  state,  but 
having  grown  up  to  maturity,  witness  its  powers, 
and  see  what  endeavours  to  make  it  useful  have 
done. " 


21 


PROFESSOR    JOSEPH    HENRY'S    INVEN- 
TION OF  THE  ELECTRIC  TELEGRAPH 

[In  1855  the  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
Washington,  D.  C.,  at  the  instance  of  their  secretary,  Pro- 
fessor Joseph  Henry,  took  evidence  with  respect  to  his 
claims  as  inventor  of  the  electric  telegraph.  The  essential 
paragraphs  of  Professor  Henry's  statement  are  taken  from 
the  Proceedings  of  the  Board  of  Regents  of  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  Washington,  18573 

THERE  are  several  forms  of  the  electric  tele- 
graph; first,  that  in  which  fractional  electricity 
has  been  proposed  to  produce  sparks  and  motion 
of  pith  balls  at  a  distance. 

Second,  that  in  which  galvanism  has  been  em- 
ployed to  produce  signals  by  means  of  bubbles 
of  gas  from  the  decomposition  of  water. 

Third,  that  in  which  electro-magnetism  is  the 
motive  power  to  produce  motion  at  a  distance; 
and  again,  of  the  latter  there  are  two  kinds  of 
telegraphs,  those  in  which  the  intelligence  is  in- 
dicated by  the  motion  of  a  magnetic  needle,  and 
those  in  which  sounds  and  permanent  signs  are 
made  by  the  attraction  of  an  electro-magnet. 
The  latter  is  the  class  to  which  Mr.  Morse's  in- 
vention belongs.  The  following  is  a  brief  ex- 
position of  the  several  steps  which  led  to  this 
form  of  the  telegraph. 

The  first  essential  fact  which  rendered  the 
electro-magnetic  telegraph  possible  was  dis- 
23 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

covered  by  Oersted,  in  the  winter  of  1819-' 20. 
It  is  illustrated  by  figure  i,  in  which  the  mag- 
netic needle  is  deflected  by  the  action  of  a  cur- 
rent of  galvanism  transmitted  through  the  wire 
A  B. 


—  B 


Fig.   i 

The  second  fact  of  importance,  discovered  in 
1820,  by  Arago  and  Davy,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2. 
It  consists  in  this,  that  while  a  current  of  gal- 
vanism is  passing  through  a  copper  wire  A  B,  it 
is  magnetic,  it  attracts  iron  filings  and  not  those 
of  copper  or  brass,  and  is  capable  of  developing 
magnetism  in  soft  iron. 


Fig. 


The  next  important  discovery,  also  made  in 

1820,  by  Ampere,  was  that  two  wires  through 

which  galvanic  currents  are  passing  in  the  same 

direction  attract,  and  in  the  opposite  direction, 

24 


Professor  Joseph   Henry's    Invention 

repel,  each  other.  On  this  fact  Ampere  founded 
his  celebrated  theory,  that  magnetism  consists 
merely  in  the  attraction  of  electrical  currents 
revolving  at  right  angles  to  the  line  joining  the 
two  poles  of  the  magnet.  The  magnetization  of 
a  bar  of  steel  or  iron,  according  to  this  theory 
consists  in  establishing  within  the  metal  by  in- 
duction a  series  of  electrical  currents,  all  revolv- 
ing in  the  same  direction  at  right  angles  to  the 
axis  or  length  of  the  bar. 

It  was  this  theory  which  led  Arago,  as  he 
states,  to  adopt  the  method  of  magnetizing 
sewing  needles  and  pieces  of  steel  wire,  shown  in 
Fig.  3.  This  method  consists  in  transmitting 


Fig.  3 

a  current  of  electricity  through  a  helix  surround- 
ing  the  needle  or  wire  to  be  magnetized.  For 
the  purpose  of  insulation  the  needle  was  enclosed 
in  a  glass  tube,  and  the  several  turns  of  the  helix 
were  at  a  distance  from  each  other  to  insure  the 
passage  of  electricity  through  the  whole  length 
of  the  wire,  or,  in  other  words,  to  prevent  it  from 
seeking  a  shorter  passage  by  cutting  across  from 
one  spire  to  another.  The  helix  employed  by 
Arago  obviously  approximates  the  arrangement 
required  by  the  theory  of  Ampere,  in  order  to 
develop  by  induction  the  magnetism  of  the  iron. 
25 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

By  an  attentive  perusal  of  the  original  account 
of  the  experiments  of  Arago,  it  will  be  seen  that, 
properly  speaking,  he  made  no  electro-magnet, 
as  has  been  asserted  by  Morse  and  others;  his 
experiments  were  confined  to  the  magnetism  of 
iron  filings,  to  sewing  needles  and  pieces  of  steel 
wire  of  the  diameter  of  a  millimetre,  or  of  about 
the  thickness  of  a  small  knitting  needle. 

Mr.    Sturgeon,   in    1825,    made   an   important 


Fig.  4 

step  in  advance  of  the  experiments  of  Arago,  and 
produced  what  is  properly  known  as  the  electro- 
magnet. He  bent  a  piece  of  iron  wire  into  the 
form  of  a  horseshoe,  covered  it  with  varnish  to 
insulate  it,  and  surrounded  it  with  a  helix,  of 
which  the  spires  were  at  a  distance.  When  a 
current  of  galvanism  was  passed  through  the  helix 
from  a  small  battery  of  a  single  cup  the  iron  wire 
became  magnetic,  and  continued  so  during  the 
passage  of  the  current.  When  the  current  was 
interrupted  the  magnetism  disappeared,  and 
26 


Professor   Joseph   Henry's    Invention 

thus  was  produced  the  first  temporary  soft  iron 
magnet. 

The  electro-magnet  of  Sturgeon  is  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  By  comparing  Figs.  3  and  4  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  helix  employed  by  Sturgeon  was 
of  the  same  kind  as  that  used  by  Arago ;  instead 
however,  of  a  straight  steel  wire  inclosed  in  a  tube 
of  glass,  the  former  employed  a  bent  wire  of  soft 
iron.  The  difference  in 
the  arrangement  at  first 
sight  might  appear  to 
be  small,  but  the  differ- 
ence in  the  results  pro- 
duced was  important, 
since  the  temporary  mag- 
netism developed  in  the 
arrangement  of  Sturgeon 
was  sufficient  to  support 
a  weight  of  several 

pounds,  and  an  instrument  was  thus  produced 
of  value  in  future  research. 

The  next  improvement  was  made  by  myself. 
After  reading  an  account  of  the  galvanometer  of 
Schweigger,  the  idea  occurred  to  me  that  a 
much  nearer  approximation  to  the  requirements 
of  the  theory  of  Ampere  could  be  attained  by 
insulating  the  conducting  wire  itself,  instead  of 
the  rod  to  be  magnetized,  and  by  covering  the 
whole  surface  of  the  iron  with  a  series  of  coils 
in  close  contact.  This  was  effected  by  insulating 
a  long  wire  with  silk  thread,  and  winding  this 
around  the  rod  of  iron  in  close  coils  from  one  end 
27 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

to  the  other.  The  same  principle  was  extended 
by  employing  a  still  longer  insulated  wire,  and 
winding  several  strata  of  this  over  the  first,  care 
being  taken  to  insure  the  insulation  between 
each  stratum  by  a  covering  of  silk  ribbon.  By 
this  arrangement  the  rod  was  surrounded  by  a 
compound  helix  formed  of  a  long  wire  of  many 
coils,  instead  of  a  single  helix  of  a  few  coils, 
(Fig.  5)- 

In  the  arrangement  of  Arago  and  Sturgeon  the 
several  turns  of  wire  were  not  precisely  at  right 
angles  to  the  axis  of  the  rod,  as  they  should  be, 
to  produce  the  effect  required  by  the  theory, 
but  slightly  oblique,  and  therefore  each  tended 
to  develop  a  separate  magnetism  not  coincident 
with  the  axis  of  the  bar.  But  in  winding  the  wire 
over  itself,  the  obliquity  of  the  several  turns 
compensated  each  other,  and  the  resultant  action 
was  at  right  angles  to  the  bar.  The  arrange- 
ment then  introduced  by  myself  was  superior  to 
those  of  Arago  and  Sturgeon,  first  in  the  greater 
multiplicity  of  turns  of  wire,  and  second  in  the 
better  application  of  these  turns  to  the  develop- 
ment of  magnetism.  The  power  of  the  instru- 
ment with  the  same  amount  of  galvanic  force, 
was  by  this  arrangement  several  times  increased. 

The  maximum  effect,  however,  with  this  ar- 
rangement and  a  single  battery  was  not  yet  ob- 
tained. After  a  certain  length  of  wire  had  been 
coiled  upon  the  iron,  the  power  diminished  with 
a  further  increase  of  the  number  of  turns.  This 
was  due  to  the  increased  resistance  which  the 
28 


Professor  Joseph   Henry's    Invention 

longer  wire  offered  to  the  conduction  of  electricit}7". 
Two  methods  of  improvement  therefore  sug- 
gested themselves.  The  first  consisted,  not  in 
increasing  the  length  of  the  coil,  but  in  using  a 
number  of  separate  coils  on  the  same  piece  of 
iron.  By  this  arrangement  the  resistance  to  the 
conduction  of  the  electricity  was  diminished  and 
a  greater  quantity  made  to  circulate  around  the 
iron  from  the  same  bat- 
tery. The  second 
method  of  producing  a 
similar  result  consisted 
in  increasing  the  num- 
ber of  elements  of  the 
battery,  or,  in  other 
words,  the  projectile 
force  of  the  electricity, 
which  enabled  it  to  pass 
through  an  increased 
number  of  turns  of  wire, 
and  thus,  by  increasing  the  length  of  the  wire, 
to  develop  the  maximum  power  of  the  iron. 

To  test  these  principles  oil  a  larger  scale,  the 
experimental  magnet  was  constructed,  which  is 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  In  this  a  number  of  compound 
helices  were  placed  on  the  same  bar,  their  ends 
left  projecting,  and  so  numbered  that  they  could 
be  all  united  into  one  long  helix,  or  variously 
combined  in  sets  of  lesser  length. 

From   a  series  of  experiments  with  this  and 
other   magnets    it  was  proved  that,  in  order  to 
produce  the  greatest  amount  of  magnetism  from 
29 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

a  battery  of  a  single  cup,  a  number  of  helices  is 
required;  but  when  a  compound  battery  is  used, 
then  one  long  wire  must  be  employed,  making 
many  turns  around  the  iron,  the  length  of  wire 
and  consequently  the  number  of  turns  being 
commensurate  with  the  projectile  power  of  the 
battery. 

In  describing  the  results  of  my  experiments, 
the  terms  intensity  and  quantity  magnets  were 
introduced  to  avoid  circumlocution,  and  were 
intended  to  be  used  merely  in  a  technical  sense. 
By  the  intensity  magnet  I  designated  a  piece  of 
soft  iron,  so  surrounded  with  wire  that  its  mag- 
netic power  could  be  called  into  operation  by  an 
intensity  battery,  and  by  a  quantity  magnet,  a 
piece  of  iron  so  surrounded  by  a  number  of  sepa- 
rate coils,  that  its  magnetism  could  be  fully  de- 
veloped by  a  quantity  battery. 

I  was  the  first  to  point  out  this  connection  of 
the  two  kinds  of  the  battery  with  the  two  forms 
of  the  magnet,  in  my  paper  in  Silliman's  Journal, 
January,  1831,  and  clearly  to  state  that  when 
magnetism  was  to  be  developed  by  means  of  a 
compound  battery,  one  long  coil  was  to  be  im- 
ployed,  and  when  the  maximum  effect  was  to 
be  produced  by  a  single  battery,  a  number  of 
single  strands  were  to  be  used. 

These  steps  in  the  advance  of  electro-magnet- 
ism, though  small,  were  such  as  to  interest  and 
astonish  the  scientific  world.  With  the  same 
battery  used  by  Mr.  Sturgeon,  at  least  a  hundred 
times  more  magnetism  was  produced  than  could 
30 


Professor  Joseph   Henry's    Invention 

have  been  obtained  by  his  experiment.  The 
developments  were  considered  at  the  time  of 
much  importance  in  a  scientific  point  of  view, 
and  they  subsequenty  furnished  the  means  by 
which  magneto-electricity,  the  phenomena  of 
dia-magnetism,  and  the  magnetic  effects  on 
polarized  light  were  discovered.  They  gave  rise 
to  the  various  forms  of  electro-magnetic  machines 
which  have  since  exercised  the  ingenuity  of  in- 
ventors in  every  part  of  the  world,  and  were  of 
immediate  applicability  in  the  introduction  of 
the  magnet  to  telegraphic  purposes.  Neither 
the  electro-magnet  of  Sturgeon  nor  any  electro- 
magnet ever  made  previous  to  my  investiga- 
tions was  applicable  to  transmitting  power  to  a 
distance. 

The  principles  I  have  developed  were  properly 
appreciated  by  the  scientific  mind  of  Dr.  Gale, 
and  applied  by  him  to  operate  Mr.  Morse's 
machine  at  a  distance. 

Previous  to  my  investigations  the  means  of 
developing  magnetism  in  soft  iron  were  imper- 
fectly understood.  The  electro-magnet  made 
by  Sturgeon,  and  copied  by  Dana,  of  New  York, 
was  an  imperfect  quantity  magnet,  the  feeble 
power  of  which  was  developed  by  a  single  battery. 
It  was  entirely  inapplicable  to  a  long  circuit 
with  an  intensity  battery,  and  no  person  possess- 
ing the  requisite  scientific  knowledge,  would 
have  attempted  to  use  it  in  that  connection  after 
reading  my  paper. 

In  sending  a  message  to  a  distance,  two  cir- 
31 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

cults  are  employed,  the  first  a  long  circuit  through 
which  the  electricity  is  sent  to  the  distant  station 
to  bring  into  action  the  second,  a  short  one,  in 
which  is  the  local  battery  and  magnet  for  work- 
ing the  machine.  In  order  to  give  projectile 
force  sufficient  to  send  the  power  to  a  distance, 
it  is  necessary  to  use  an  intensity  battery  in  the 
long  circuit,  and  in  connection  with  this,  at 
the  distant  station,  a  magnet  surrounded  with 
many  turns  of  one  long  wire  must  be  employed 
to  receive  and  multiply  the  effect  of  the  current 
enfeebled  by  its  transmission  through  the  long 
conductor.  In  the  local  or  short  circuit  either 
an  intensity  or  a  quantity  magnet  may  be  em- 
ployed. If  the  first  be  used,  then  with  it  a  com- 
pound battery  will  be  required;  and,  therefore 
on  account  of  the  increased  resistance  due  to 
the  greater  quantity  of  acid,  a  less  amount  of 
work  will  be  performed  by  a  given  amount  of 
material;  and,  consequently,  though,  this  arrange- 
ment is  practicable  it  is  by  no  means  economical. 
In  my  original  paper  I  state  that  the  advantages 
of  a  greater  conducting  power,  from  using  several 
wires  in  the  quantity  magnet,  may,  in  a  less  de- 
gree, be  obtained  by  substituting  for  them  one 
large  wire;  but  in  this  case,  on  account  of  the 
greater  obliquity  of  the  spires  and  other  causes, 
the  magnetic  effect  would  be  less.  In  accordance 
with  these  principles,  the  receiving  magnet,  or 
that  which  is  introduced  into  the  long  circuit, 
consists  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet  surrounded  with 
many  hundred  turns  of  a  single  long  wire,  and 
32 


Professor  Joseph   Henry's    Invention 

is  operated  with  a  battery  of  from  twelve  to 
twenty-four  elements  or  more,  while  in  the  local 
circuit  it  is  customary  to  employ  a  battery  of  one 
or  two  elements  with  a  much  thicker  wire  and 
fewer  turns. 

It  will,  I  think,  be  evident  to  the  impartial 
reader  that  these  were  improvements  in  the  elec- 
tro-magnet, which  first  rendered  it  adequate  to 
the  transmission  of  mechanical  power  to  a  dis- 
tance ;  and  had  I  omitted  all  allusion  to  the  tele- 
graph in  my  paper,  the  conscientious  historian  of 
science  would  have  awarded  me  some  credit, 
however  small  might  have  been  the  advance 
which  I  made.  Arago  and  Sturgeon,  in  the  ac- 
counts of  their  experiments,  make  no  mention  of 
the  telegraph,  and  yet  their  names  always  have 
been  and  will  be  associated  with  the  invention. 
I  briefly,  however,  called  attention  to  the  fact 
of  the  applicability  of  my  experiments  to  the 
construction  of  the  telegraph;  but  not  being 
familiar  with  the  history  of  the  attempts  made 
in  regard  to  this  invention,  I  called  it  "Barlow's 
project,"  while  I  ought  to  have  stated  that  Mr. 
Barlow's  investigation  merely  tended  to  disprove 
the  possibility  of  a  telegraph. 

I  did  not  refer  exclusively  to  the  needle  tele- 
graph when,  in  my  paper,  I  stated  that  the  mag- 
netic action  of  a  current  from  a  trough  is  at  least 
not  sensibly  diminished  by  passing  through  a  long 
wire.  This  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  the 
immediate  experiment  from  which  this  de- 
duction was  made  was  by  means  of  an  electro- 
33 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

magnet  and  not  by  means  of  a  needle  galva- 
nometer. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  series  of  experiments 
which  I  described  in  Silliman's  Journal ,  there 
were  two  applications  of  the  electro-magnet  in 
my  mind :  one  the  production  of  a  machine  to  be 
moved  by  electro-magnetism,  and  the  other  the 
transmission  of  or  calling  into  action  power  at  a 
distance.  The  first  was  carried  into  execution 


Fig.  7 

in  the  construction  of  the  machine  described  in 
Silliman's  Journal,  vol.  xx,  1831,  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  experimenting  in  regard  to  the  second,  I 
arranged  around  one  of  the  upper  rooms  in  the 
Albany  Academy  a  wire  of  more  than  a  mile  in 
length,  through  which  I  was  enabled  to  make 
signals  by  sounding  a  bell,  (Fig.  7.)  The  me- 
chanical arrangement  for  effecting  this  object  was 
simply  a  steel  bar,  permanently  magnetized,  of 
about  ten  inches  in  length,  supported  on  a  pivot, 
34 


Professor  Joseph   Henry's    Invention 

and  placed  with,  its  north  end  between  the  two 
arms  of  a  horse-shoe  magnet.  When  the  latter 
was  excited  by  the  current,  the  end  of  the  bar  thus 
placed  was  attracted  by  one  arm  of  the  horse- 
shoe, and  repelled  by  the  other,  and  was  thus 
caused  to  move  in  a  horizontal  plane  and  its  fur- 
ther extremity  to  strike  a  bell  suitably  adjusted. 

I  also  devised  a  method  of  breaking  a  circuit, 
and  thereby  causing  a  large  weight  to  fall.  It  was 
intended  to  illustrate  the  practicabilityof  calling 
into  action  a  great  power  at  a  distance  capable 
of  producing  mechanical  effects;  but  as  a  de- 
scription of  this  was  not  printed,  I  do  not  place 
it  in  the  same  category  with  the  experiments  of 
which  I  published  an  account,  or  the  facts  which 
could  be  immediately  deduced  from  my  papers  in 
Silliman's  journal. 

From  a  careful  investigation  of  the  history  of 
electro-magnetism  in  its  connection  with  the 
telegraph,  the  following  facts  may  be  established: 

1.  Previous  to  my  investigations  the  means  of 
developing  magnetism  in  soft  iron  were  imper- 
fectly understood,  and  the  electro-magnet  which 
then  existed  was  inapplicable  to  the  transmission 
of  power  to  a  distance. 

2.  I  was  the  first  to  prove  by  actual  experi- 
ment that,  in  order  to  develop  magnetic  power 
at   a   distance,   a  galvanic  battery  of  intensity 
must  be  employed  to  project  the  current  through 
the  long  conductor,  and  that  a  magnet  surrounded 
by  many  turns  of  one  long  wire  must  be  used  to 
receive  this  current. 

35 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

3.  I  was  the  first  actually  to  magnetize  a  piece 
of  iron  at  a  distance,  and  to  call  attention  to  the 
fact  of  the  applicability  of  my  experiments  to 
the  telegraph. 

4.  I  was  the  first  to  actually  sound  a  bell  at  a 
distance  by  means  of  the  electro-magnet. 

5.  The  principles  I  had  developed  were  applied 
by  Dr.  Gale  to.  render  Morse's  machine  effective 
at  a  distance. 


36 


THE   FIRST   ATLANTIC   CABLES 
GEORGE  ILES 

[From  "Flame,  Electricity  and  the  Camera,"  copyright 
Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York.fl 

ELECTRIC  telegraphy  on  land  has  put  a  vast 
distance  between  itself  and  the  mechanical  sig- 
nalling of  Chappe,  just  as  the  scope  and  availabil- 
ity of  the  French  invention  are  in  high  contrast 
with  the  rude  signal  fires  of  the  primitive  savage. 
As  the  first  land  telegraphs  joined  village  to 
village,  and  city  to  city,  the  crossing  of  water 
came  in  as  a  minor  incident;  the  wires  were 
readily  committed  to  the  bridges  which  spanned 
streams  of  moderate  width.  Where  a  river  or 
inlet  was  unbridged,  or  a  channel  was  too  wide 
for  the  roadway  of  the  engineer,  the  question 
arose,  May  we  lay  an  electric  wire  under  water  ? 
With  an  ordinary  land  line,  air  serves  as  so  good 
a  non-conductor  and  insulator  that  as  a  rule 
cheap  iron  may  be  employed  for  the  wire  instead 
of  expensive  copper.  In  the  quest  for  non-con- 
ductors suitable  for  immersion  in  rivers,  channels, 
and  the  sea,  obstacles  of  a  stubborn  kind  were 
confronted.  To  overcome  them  demanded  new 
materials,  more  refined  instruments,  and  a  com- 
plete revision  of  electrical  philosophy. 

As  far  back  as  1795,  Francisco  Salva  had  re- 
commended to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Barce- 
37 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

lona,  the  covering  of  subaqueous  wires  by  resin, 
which  is  both  impenetrable  by  water  and  a  non- 
conductor of  electricity.  Insulators,  indeed,  of 
one  kind  and  another,  were  common  enough,  but 
each  of  them  was  defective  in  some  quality  in- 
dispensable for  success.  Neither  glass  nor 
porcelain  is  flexible,  and  therefore  to  lay  a  con- 
tinuous line  of  one  or  the  other  was  out  of  the 
question.  Resin  and  pitch  were  even  more  faulty, 
because  extremely  brittle  and  friable.  What  of 
such  fibres  as  hemp  or  silk,  if  saturated  with  tar 
or  some  other  good  non-conductor  ?  For  very 
short  distances  under  still  water  they  served 
fairly  well,  but  any  exposure  to  a  rocky  beach 
with  its  chafing  action,  any  rub  by  a  passing 
anchor,  was  fatal  to  them.  What  the  copper 
wire  needed  was  a  covering  impervious  to  water, 
unchangeable  in  composition  by  time,  tough  of 
texture,  and  non-conducting  in  the  highest  degree. 
Fortunately  all  these  properties  are  united 
in  gutta-percha :  they  exist  in  nothing  else  known 
to  art.  Gutta-percha  is  the  hardened  juice  of  a 
large  tree  (Isonandra  gutta)  common  in  the 
Malay  Archipelago;  it  is  tough  and  strong,  easily 
moulded  when  moderately  heated.  In  com- 
parison with  copper  it  is  but  one  60,000,000,000,- 
ooo,ooo,oooth  as  conductive.  As  without  gutta- 
percha  there  could  be  no  ocean  telegraphy,  it  is 
worth  while  recalling  how  it  came  within  the 
purview  of  the  electrical  engineer. 

In   1843  Jose  d' Almeida,  a  Portuguese  engi- 
neer,   presented   to    the  Royal   Asiatic    Society, 
38 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 

London,  the  first  specimens  of  gutta-percha 
brought  to  Europe.  A  few  months  later,  Dr. 
W.  Montgomerie,  a  surgeon,  gave  other  speci- 
mens to  the  Society  of  Arts,  of  London,  which 
exhibited  them;  but  it  was  four  years  before  the 
chief,  characteristic  of  the  gum  was  recognized. 
In  1847  Mr-  S.  T.  Armstrong  of  New  York,  during 
a  visit  to  London,  inspected  a  pound  or  two  of 
gutta-percha,  and  found  it  to  be  twice  as  good  a 
non-conductor  as  glass.  The  next  year,  through 
his  instrumentality,  a  cable  covered  with  this 
new  insulator  was  laid  between  New  York  and 
Jersey  City;  its  success  prompted  Mr  Armstrong 
to  suggest  that  a  similarly  protected  cable  be 
submerged  between  America  and  Europe. 
Eighteen  years  of  untiring  effort,  impeded  by 
the  errors  inevitable  to  the  pioneer,  stood  be- 
tween the  proposal  and  its  fulfilment.  In  1848 
the  Messrs.  Siemens  laid  under  water  in  the  port 
of  Kiel  a  wire  covered  with  seamless  gutta- 
percha,  such  as,  beginning  with  1847,  they  had 
employed  for  subterranean  conductors.  This 
particular  wire  was  not  used  for  telegraphy,  but 
formed  part  of  a  submarine-mine  system.  In 
1849  Mr.  C.  V.  Walker  laid  an  experimental  line 
in  the  English  Channel ;  he  proved  the  possibility 
of  signalling  for  two  miles  through  a  wire  covered 
with  gutta-percha,  and  so  prepared  the  way  for 
a  venture  which  joined  the  shores  of  France  and 
England. 

In   1850  a  cable  twenty-five  miles  in  length 
was  laid  from  Dover  to  Calais,   only  to  prove 
39 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

worthless  from  faulty  insulation  and  the  lack 
of  armour  against  dragging  anchors  and  fretting 
rocks.  In  1851  the  experiment  was  repeated 
with  success.  The  conductor  now  was  not  a 
single  wire  of  copper,  but  four  wires,  wound 


Fig.  58.— Calais-Dover  cable,  1851 

spirally,  so  as  to  combine  strength  with  flexibility; 
these  were  covered  with  gutta-percha  and  sur- 
rounded with  tarred  hemp.  As  a  means  of  im- 
parting additional  strength,  ten  iron  wires  were 
wound  round  the  hemp — a  feature  which  has 
been  copied  in  every  subsequent  cable  (Fig.  58). 
The  engineers  were  fast  learning  the  rigorous 
conditions  of  submarine  telegraphy;  in  its  essen- 
tials the  Dover-Calais  line  continues  to  be  the 
type  of  deep-sea  cables  to-day.  The  success  of 
the  wire  laid  across  the  British  Channel  incited 
other  ventures  of  the  kind.  Many  of  them, 
through  careless  construction  or  unskilful  laying, 
were  utter  failures.  At  last,  in  1855,  a  sub- 
marine line  171  miles  in  length  gave  excellent 
service,  as  it  united  Varna  with  Constantinople; 
this  was  the  greatest  length  of  satisfactory  cable 
until  the  submergence  of  an  Atlantic  line. 
40 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 

In  1854  Cyrus  W.  Field  of  New  York  opened 
a  new  chapter  in  electrical  enterprise  as  he  re- 
solved to  lay  a  cable  between  Ireland  and  New- 
foundland, along  the  shortest  line  that  joins 
Europe  to  America.  He  chose  Valentia  and 
Heart's  Content,  a  little  more  than  1,600  miles 
apart,  as  his  termini,  and  at  once  began  to  enlist 
the  co-operation  of  his  friends.  Although  an 
unfaltering  enthusiast  when  once  his  great  idea 
had  possession  of  him,  Mr.  Field  was  a  man  of 
strong  common  sense.  From  first  to  last  he  went 
upon  well-ascertained  facts;  when  he  failed  he 
did  so  simply  because  other  facts,  which  he  could 
not  possibly  know,  had  to  be  disclosed  by  costly 
experience.  Messrs.  Whitehouse  and  Bright, 
electricians  to  his  company,  were  instructed  to 
begin  a  preliminary  series  of  experiments.  They 
united  a  continuous  stretch  of  wires  laid  beneath 
land  and  water  for  a  distance  of  2,000  miles,  and 
found  that  through  this  extraordinary  circuit 
they  could  transmit  as  many  as  four  signals  per 
second.  They  inferred  that  an  Atlantic  cable 
would  offer  but  little  more  resistance,  and  would 
therefore  be  electrically  workable  and  commer- 
cially lucrative. 

In  1857  a  cable  was  forthwith  manufactured, 
divided  in  halves,  and  stowed  in  the  holds  of  the 
Niagara  of  the  United  States  navy,  and  the 
Agamemnon  of  the  British  fleet.  The  Niagara 
sailed  from  Ireland;  the  sister  ship  proceeded  to 
Newfoundland,  and  was  to  meet  her  in  mid- 
ocean.  When  the  Niagara  had  run  out  335 
41 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

miles  of  her  cable  it  snapped  under  a  sudden  in- 
crease  of  strain  at  the  paying-out  machinery; 
all  attempts  at  recovery  were  unavailing,  and  the 
work  for  that  year  was  abandoned.  The  next 
year  it  was  resumed,  a  liberal  supply  of  new 
cable  having  been  manufactured  to  replace  the 
lost  section,  and  to  meet  any  fresh  emergency 
that  might  arise.  A  new  plan  of  voyages  was 
adopted:  the  vessels  now  sailed  together  to 
mid-sea,  uniting  there  both  portions  of  the  cable; 
then  one  ship  steamed  off  to  Ireland,  the  other 
to  the  Newfoundland  coast.  Both  reached  their 
destinations  on  the  same  day,  August  5,  1858, 
and,  feeble  and  irregular  though  it  was,  an  elec- 
tric pulse  for  the  first  time  now  bore  a  message 
from  hemisphere  to  hemisphere.  After  732 
despatches  had  passed  through  the  wire  it  be- 
came silent  forever.  In  one  of  these  despatches 
from  London,  the  War  Office  countermanded 
the  departure  of  two  regiments  about  to  leave 
Canada  for  England,  which  saved  an  outlay  of 
about  $250,000.  This  widely  quoted  fact  demon- 
strated with  telling  effect  the  value  of  cable 
telegraphy. 

Now  followed  years  of  struggle  which  would 
have  dismayed  any  less  resolute  soul  than  Mr. 
Field.  The  Civil  War  had  broken  out,  with  its 
perils  to  the  Union,  its  alarms  and  anxieties  for 
every  American  heart.  But  while  battleships 
and  cruisers  were  patrolling  the  coast  from 
Maine  to  Florida,  and  regiments  were  marching 
through  Washington  on  their  way  to  battle, 
42 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 

there  was  no  remission  of  effort  on  the  part  of  the 
great  projector. 

Indeed,  in  the  misunderstandings  which  grew 
out  of  the  war,  and  that  at  one  time  threatened 
international  conflict,  he  plainly  saw  how  a  cable 
would  have  been  a  peace-maker.  A  single  word 
of  explanation  through  its  wire,  and  angry  feel- 
ings on  both  sides  of  the  ocean  would  have  been 
allayed  at  the  time  of  the  Trent  affair.  In  this 
conviction  he  was  confirmed  by  the  English 
press;  the  London  Times  said:  "  We  nearly  went 
to  war  with  America  because  we  had  no  telegraph 
across  the  Atlantic."  In  1859  the  British  gov- 
ernment had  appointed  a  committee  of  eminent 
engineers  to  inquire  into  the  feasibility  of  an 
Atlantic  telegraph,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining 
what  was  wanting  for  success,  and  with  the  in- 
tention of  adding  to  its  original  aid  in  case  the 
enterprise  were  revived.  In  July,  1863,  this 
committee  presented  a  report  entirely  favourable 
in  its  terms,  affirming  "that  a  well-insulated 
cable,  properly  protected,  of  suitable  specific 
gravity,  made  with  care,  tested  under  water 
throughout  its  progress  with  the  best-known 
apparatus,  and  paid  into  the  ocean  with  the  most 
improved  machinery,  possesses  every  prospect 
of  not  only  being  successfully  laid  in  the  first 
instance,  but  may  reasonably  be  relied  upon  to 
continue  for  many  years  in  an  efficient  state  for 
the  transmission  of  signals." 

Taking  his  stand  upon  this  endorsement,  Mr. 
Field  now  addressed  himself  to  the  task  of  rais- 
43 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

ing  the  large  sum  needed  to  make  and  lay  a  new 
cable  which  should  be  so  much  better  than  the 
old  ones  as  to  reward  its  owners  with  triumph. 
He  found  his  English  friends  willing  to  venture 
the  capital  required,  and  without  further  delay 
the  manufacture  of  a  new  cable  was  taken  in 
hand.  In  every  detail  the  recommendations  of 
the  Scientific  Committee  were  carried  out  to  the 
letter,  so  that  the  cable  of  1865  was  incompara- 
bly superior  to  that  of  1858.  First,  the  central 
copper  wire,  which  was  the  nerve  along  which 
the  lightning  was  to  run,  was  nearly  three  times 
larger  than  before.  The  old  conductor  was  a 
strand  consisting  of  seven  fine  wires,  six  laid 
around  one,  and  weighed  but  107  pounds  to 
the  mile.  The  new  was  composed  of  the  same 
number  of  wires,  but  weighed  300  pounds  to  the 
mile,  ^t  was  made  of  the  finest  copper  obtain- 
able. 

To  secure  insulation,  this  conductor  was  first 
embedded  in  Chatterton's  compound,  a  prepara- 
tion impervious  to  water,  and  then  covered  with 
four  layers  of  gutta-percha,  which  were  laid  on 
alternately  with  four  thin  layers  of  Chatterton's 
compound.  The  old  cable  had  but  three  coat- 
ings of  gutta-percha,  with  nothing  between. 
Its  entire  insulation  weighed  but  261  pounds 
to  the  mile,  while  that  of  the  new  weighed  400 
pounds.*  The  exterior  wires,  ten  in  number, 
were  of  Bessemer  steel,  each  separately  wound 

*  Henry  M.  Field,  "  History  of  the  Atlantic  Telegraph." 
New  York:  Scribner,  1866. 

44 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 

in  pitch-soaked  hemp  yarn,  the  shore  ends 
specially  protected  by  thirty-six  wires  girdling 
the  whole.  Here  was  a  combination  of  the 
tenacity  of  steel  with  much  of  the  flexibility  of 
rope.  The  insulation  of  the  copper  was  so 
excellent  as  to  exceed  by  a  hundredfold  that  of 
the  core  of  1858 — which,  faulty  though  it  was, 
had,  nevertheless,  sufficed  for  signals.  So  much 
inconvenience  and  risk  had  been  encountered 
in  dividing  the  task  of  cable-laying  between  two 
ships  that  this  time  it  was  decided  to  charter  a 
single  vessel,  the  Great  Eastern,  which,  fortu- 
nately, was  large  enough  to  accommodate  the 
cable  in  an  unbroken  length.  Foilhommerum 
Bay,  about  six  miles  from  Valentia,  was  selected 
as  the  new  Irish  terminus  by  the  company.  Al- 
though the  most  anxious  care  was  exercised  in 
every  detail,  yet,  when  1,186  miles  had  been  laid, 
the  cable  parted  in  11,000  feet  of  water,  and 
although  thrice  it  was  grappled  and  brought 
toward  the  surface,  thrice  it  slipped  off  the 
grappling  hooks  and  escaped  to  the  ocean  floor. 
Mr.  Field  was  obliged  to  return  to  England 
and  face  as  best  he  might  the  men  whose  capital 
lay  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea — perchance  as 
worthless  as  so  much  Atlantic  ooze.  With 
heroic  persistence  he  argued  that  all  difficulties 
would  yield  to  a  renewed  attack.  There  must 
be  redoubled  precautions  and  vigilance  never 
for  a  moment  relaxed.  Everything  that  deep- 
sea  telegraphy  has  since  accomplished  was  at 
that  moment  daylight  clear  to  his  prophetic 
45 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

view.  Never  has  there  been  a  more  signal  ex- 
ample of  the  power  of  enthusiasm  to  stir  cold- 
blooded men  of  business;  never  has  there  been  a 
more  striking  illustration  of  how  much  science 
may  depend  for  success  upon  the  intelligence 
and  the  courage  of  capital.  Electricians  might 
have  gone  on  perfecting  exquisite  apparatus  for 
ocean  telegraphy,  or  indicated  the  weak  points  in 
the  comparatively  rude  machinery  which  made 
and  laid  the  cable,  yet  their  exertions  would 
have  been  wasted  if  men  of  wealth  had  not  re- 
sponded to  Mr.  Field's  renewed  appeal  for  help. 
Thrice  these  men  had  invested  largely,  and  thrice 
disaster  had  pursued  their  ventures;  neverthe- 
less they  had  faith  surviving  all  misfortunes  for 
a  fourth  attempt. 

In  1866  a  new  company  was  organized,  for  two 
objects:  first,  to  recover  the  cable  lost  the  pre- 
vious year  and  complete  it  to  the  American  shore ; 
second,  to  lay  another  beside  it  in  a  parallel 
course.  The  Great  Eastern  was  again  put  in 
commission,  and  remodelled  in  accordance  with 
the  experience  of  her  preceding  voyage.  This 
time  the  exterior  wires  of  the  cable  were  of  gal- 
vanized iron,  the  better  to  resist  corrosion.  The 
paying-out  machinery  was  reconstructed  and 
greatly  improved.  On  July  13,  1866,  the  huge 
steamer  began  running  out  her  cable  twenty- 
five  miles  north  of  the  line  struck  out  during  the 
expedition  of  1865;  she  arrived  without  mishap 
in  Newfoundland  on  July  2  7 ,  and  electrical  com- 
munication was  re-established  between  America 
46 


The   First   Atlantic   Cables 

and  Europe.  The  steamer  now  returned  to  trie 
spot  where  she  had  lost  the  cable  a  few  months 
before;  after  eighteen  days'  search  it  was  brought 
to  the  deck  in  good  order.  Union  was  effected 
with  the  cable  stowed  in  the  tanks  below,  and 
the  prow  of  the  vessel  was  once  more  turned 
to  Newfoundland.  On  September  8th  this  second 
cable  was  safely  landed  at  Trinity  Bay.  Mis- 
fortunes now  were  at  an  end;  the  courage  of  Mr. 
Field  knew  victory  at  last;  the  highest  honors 
of  two  continents  were  showered  upon  him. 
Tis  not  the  grapes  of  Canaan  that  repay, 
But  the  high  faith  that  failed  not  by  the  way. 

What  at  first  was  as  much  a  daring  adventure 
as  a  business  enterprise  has  now  taken  its  place 
as  a  task  no  more  out  of  the  common  than  build- 
a  steamship,  or  rearing  a  cantilever  bridge. 
Given  its  price,  which  will  include  too  moderate 
a  profit  to  betray  any  expectation  of  failure,  arid 
a  responsible  firm  will  contract  to  lay  a  cable 
across  the  Pacific  itself.  In  the  Atlantic  lines 
the  uniformly  low  temperature  of  the  ocean 
floor  (about  4°  C.) ,  and  the  great  pressure  of  the 
superincumbent  sea,  co-operate  in  effecting  an 
enormous  enhancement  both  in  the  insulation 
and  in  the  carrying  capacity  of  the  wire.  As  an 
example  of  recent  work  in  ocean  telegraphy  let 
us  glance  at  the  cable  laid  in  1894,  by  the  Com- 
mercial Cable  Company  of  New  York.  It  unites 
Cape  Canso,  on  the  northeastern  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  to  Waterville,  on  the  southwestern  coast 
of  Ireland.  The  central  portion  of  this  cable 
47 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

much  resembles  that  of  its  predecessor  in  1866. 
Its  exterior  armour  of  steel  wires  is  much  more 
elaborate.  The  first  part  of  Fig.  59  shows  the 
details  of  manufacture:  the  central  copper  core 
is  covered  with  gutta-percha,  then  with  jute, 
upon  which  the  steel  wires  are  spirally  wound, 


Fig.  59. — Commercial  cable,  1894 

followed  by  a  strong  outer  covering.  For  the 
greatest  depths  at  sea,  type  A  is  employed  for  a 
total  length  of  1,420  miles;  the  diameter  of  this 
part  of  the  cable  is  seven-eighths  of  an  inch.  As 
the  water  lessens  in  depth  the  sheathing  in- 
creases in  size  until  the  diameter  of  the  cable 
becomes  one  and  one-sixteenth  inches  for  152 
miles,  as  type  B.  The  cable  now  undergoes  a 
third  enlargement,  and  then  its  fourth  and  last 
48 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 

proportions  are  presented  as  it  touches  the  shore, 
for  a  distance  of  one  and  three-quarter  miles, 
where  type  C  has  a  diameter  of  two  and  one-half 
inches.  The  weights  of  material  used  in  this 
cable  are:  copper  wire,  495  tons;  gutta-percha, 
315  tons;  jute  yarn,  575  tons;  steel  wire,  3,000 
tons;  compound  and  tar,  1,075  tons;  total, 
5,460  tons.  The  telegraph-ship  Faraday,  spe- 
cially designed  for  cable-laying,  accomplished 
the  work  without  mishap. 

Electrical  science  owes  much  to  the  Atlantic 
cables,  in  particular  to  the  first  of  them.  At 
the  very  beginning  it  banished  the  idea  that 
electricity  as  it  passes  through  metallic  conduc- 
tors has  anything  like  its  velocity  through  free 
space.  It  was  soon  found,  as  Professor  Menden- 
hall  says,  "that  it  is  no  more  correct  to  assign 
a  definite  velocity  to  electricity  than  to  a  river. 
As  the  rate  of  flow  of  a  river  is  determined  by  the 
character  of  its  bed,  its  gradient,  and  other  cir- 
cumstances, so  the  velocity  of  an  electric  current 
is  found  to  depend  on  the  conditions  under  which 
the  flow  takes  place.  "*  Mile  for  mile  the  origi- 
nal Atlantic  cable  had  twenty  times  the  retard- 
ing effect  of  a  good  aerial  line;  the  best  recent 
cables  reduce  this  figure  by  nearly  one-half. 

In  an  extreme  form  this  slowing  down  reminds 
us  of  the  obstruction  of  light  as  it  enters  the  at- 
mosphere of  the  earth,  of  the  further  impedi- 
ment which  the  rays  encounter  if  they  pass  from 

*  "A  Century  of  Electricity."  Boston,  Houghton, 
Mifflin  &  Co.,  1887. 

49 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

the  air  into  the  sea.  In  the  main  the  causes 
which  hinder  a  pulse  committed  to  a  cable  are 
two:  induction,  and  the  electrostatic  capacity  of 
the  wire,  that  is,  the  capacity  of  the  wire  to  take 
up  a  charge  of  its  own,  just  as  if  it  were  the 
metal  of  a  Ley  den  jar. 

Let  us  first  consider  induction.  As  a  current 
takes  its  way  through  the  copper  core  it  induces 
in  its  surroundings  a  second  and  opposing  cur- 
rent. For  this  the  remedy  is  one  too  costly  to 
be  applied.  Were  a  cable  manufactured  in  a 
double  line,  as  in  the  best  telephonic  circuits, 
induction,  with  its  retarding  and  quenching 
effects,  would  be  neutralized.  Here  the  steel 
wire  armour  which  encircles  the  cable  plays  an 
unwelcome  part.  Induction  is  always  pro- 
portioned to  the  conductivity  of  the  mass  in 
which  it  appears;  as  steel  is  an  excellent  con- 
ductor, the  armour  of  an  ocean  cable,  close  as  it  is 
to  the  copper  core,  has  induced  in  it  a  current 
much  stronger,  and  therefore  more  retarding, 
than  if  the  steel  wire  were  absent. 

A  word  now  as  to  the  second  difficulty  in  work- 
ing beneath  the  sea — that  due  to  the  absorbing 
power  of  the  line  itself.  An  Atlantic  cable,  like 
any  other  extended  conductor,  is  virtually  a  long, 
cylindrical  Ley  den  jar,  the  copper  wire  forming 
the  inner  coat,  and  its  surroundings  the  outer 
coat.  Before  a  signal  can  be  received  at  the 
distant  terminus  the  wire  must  first  be  charged. 
The  effect  is  somewhat  like  transmitting  a  signal 
through  water  which  fills  a  rubber  tube;  first  of 
50 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 

all  the  tube  is  distended,  and  its  compression,  or 
secondary  effect,  really  transmits  the  impulse. 
A  remedy  for  this  is  a  condenser  formed  of  alter- 
nate sheets  of  tin-foil  and  mica,  C ',  connected 
with  the  battery,  B,  so  as  to  balance  the  electric 
charge  of  the  cable  wire  (Fig.  60).  In  the  first 
Atlantic  line  an  impulse  demanded  one-seventh 
of  a  second  for  its  journey.  This  was  reduced 


Fig.  60. — Condenser 

when  Mr.  Whitehouse  made  the  capital  dis- 
covery that  the  speed  of  a  signal  is  increased 
threefold  when  the  wire  is  alternately  connected 
with  the  zinc  and  copper  poles  of  the  battery. 
Sir  William  Thomson  ascertained  that  these 
successive  pulses  are  most  effective  when  of  pro- 
portioned lengths.  He  accordingly  devised 
an  automatic  transmitter  which  draws  a  duly 
perforated  slip  of  paper  under  a  metallic  spring 
connected  with  the  cable.  To-day  250  to  300 
letters  are  sent  per  minute  instead  of  fifteen,  as 
at  first. 

In  many  ways  a  deep-sea  cable  exaggerates  in 
51 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

an  instructive  manner  the  phenomena  of  tele- 
graphy over  long  aerial  lines.  The  two  ends  of 
a  cable  may  be  in  regions  of  widely  diverse 
electrical  potential,  or  pressure,  just  as  the  read- 
ings of  the  barometer  at  these  two  places  may 
differ  much.  If  a  copper  wire  were  allowed  to 
offer  itself  as  a  gateless  conductor  it  would 
equalize  these  variations  of  potential  with  serious 
injury  to-  itself.  Accordingly  the  rule  is  adopted 


Fig.  61. — Reflecting  galvanometer 
L,  lamp;  N,  moving  spot  of  light  reflected  from  mirror 

of  working  the  cable  not  directly,  as  if  it  were  a 
land  line,  but  indirectly  through  condensers. 
As  the  throb  sent  through  such  apparatus  is  but 
momentary,  the  cable  is  in  no  risk  from  the  strong 
currents  which  would  course  through  it  if  it 
were  permitted  to  be  an  open  channel. 

A  serious  error  in  working  the  first  cables  was 
in  supposing  that  they  required  strong  currents 
as  in  land  lines  of  considerable  length.  The 
very  reverse  is  the  fact.  Mr.  Charles  Bright, 
in  Submarine  Telegraphs,  says: 
52 


The   First  Atlantic   Cables 


"Mr.  Latimer  Clark  had  the  conductor  of  the 
1865  and  1866  lines  joined  together  at  the  New- 
foundland end,  thus  forming  an  unbroken  length 
of  3,700  miles  in  circuit.  He  then  placed  some 
sulphuric  acid  in  a  very  small  silver  thimble,  with 
a  fragment  of  zinc  weighing  a  grain  or  two.  By 
this  primitive  agency  he  succeeded  in  conveying 


Fig.  62. — Siphon  recorder 


signals  through  twice  the  breadth  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  in  little  more  than  a  second  of  time  after 
making  contact.  The  deflections  were  not  of  a 
dubious  character,  but  full  and  strong,  from  which 
it  was  manifest  that  an  even  smaller  battery 
would  suffice  to  produce  somewhat  similar 
effects. 

At  first  in  operating  the  Atlantic  cable  a  mirror 
galvanometer  was  employed  as  a  receiver.     The 
principle  of  this  receiver  has  often  been  illustrated 
53 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

by  a  mischievous  boy  as,  with  a  slight  and  al- 
most imperceptible  motion  of  his  hand,  he  has 
used  a  bit  of  looking-glass  to  dart  a  ray  of  re- 
flected sunlight  across  a  wide  street  or  a  large 
room.  On  the  same  plan,  the  extremely  minute 
motion  of  a  galvanometer,  as  it  receives  the 
successive  pulsations  of  a  message,  is  magnified 
by  a  weightless  lever  of  light  so  that  the  words 
are  easily  read 'by  an  operator  (Fig.  61).  This 
beautiful  invention  comes  from  the  hands  of  Sir 

Fig.  63. — Siphon  record.      "Arrived  yesterday  " 

William  Thomson  [now  Lord  Kelvin],  who, 
more  than  any  other  electrician,  has  made 
ocean  telegraphy  an  established  success. 

In  another  receiver,  also  of  his  design,  the 
siphon  recorder,  he  began  by  taking  advantage 
of  the  fact,  observed  long  before  by  Bose,  that  a 
charge  of  electricity  stimulates  the  flow  of  a 
liquid.  In  its  original  form  the  ink-well  into 
which  the  siphon  dipped  was  insulated  and 
charged  to  a  high  voltage  by  an  influence-ma- 
chine; the  ink,  powerfully  repelled,  was  spurted 
from  the  siphon  point  to  a  moving  strip  of  paper 
beneath  (Fig.  62).  It  was  afterward  found 
better  to  use  a  delicate  mechanical  shaker  which 
throws  out  the  ink  in  minute  drops  as  the  cable 
current  gently  sways  the  siphon  back  and  forth 
(Fig.  63). 

54 


The   First   Atlantic   Cables 

Minute  as  the  current  is  which  suffices  for 
cable  telegraphy,  it  is  essential  that  the  metallic 
circuit  be  not  only  unbroken,  but  unimpaired, 
throughout.  No  part  of  his  duty  has  more 
severely  taxed  the  resources  of  the  electrician 
than  to  discover  the  breaks  and  leaks  in  his  ocean 
cables.  One  of  his  methods  is  to  pour  electricity 
as  it  were,  into  a  broken  wire,  much  as  if  it  were 
a  narrow  tube,  and  estimate  the  length  of  the 
wire  (and  consequently  the  distance  from  shore 
to  the  defect  or  break)  by  the  quantity  of  current 
required  to  fill  it. 


55 


BELL'S  TELEPHONIC  RESEARCHES 

[From  "Bell's  Electric  Speaking  Telephones,"  by  George 
B.  Prescott,  copyright  by  D  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1884 

IN  a  lecture  delivered  before  the  Society  of 
Telegraph  Engineers,  in  London,  October  31, 
1877,  Prof.  A.  G.  Bell  gave  a  history  of  his  re- 
searches in  telephony,  together  with  the  experi- 
ments that  he  was  led  to  undertake  in  his  en- 
deavours to  produce  a  practical  system  of  mul- 
tiple telegraphy,  and  to  realize  also  the  trans- 
mission of  articulate  speech.  After  the  usual 
introduction,  Professor  Bell  said  in  part: 

"It  is  to-night  my  pleasure,  as  well  as  duty, 
to  give  you  some  account  of  the  telephonic  re- 
searches in  which  I  have  been  so  long  engaged. 
Many  years  ago  my  attention  was  directed  to 
the  mechanism  of  speech  by  my  father,  Alexan- 
der Melville  Bell,  of  Edinburgh,  who  has  made  a 
life-long  study  of  the  subject.  Many  of  those 
present  may  recollect  the  invention  by  my  father 
of  a  means  of  representing,  in  a  wonderfully 
accurate  manner,  the  positions  of  the  vocal 
organs  in  forming  sounds.  Together  we  carried 
on  quite  a  number  of  experiments,  seeking  to 
discover  the  correct  mechanism  of  English  and 
foreign  elements  of  speech,  and  I  remember 
especially  an  investigation  in  which  we  were 
57 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

engaged  concerning  the  musical  relations  of 
vowel  sounds.  When  vocal  sounds  are  whis- 
pered, each  vowel  seems  to  possess  a  particular 
pitch  of  its  own,  and  by  whispering  certain  vow- 
els in  succession  a  musical  scale  can  be  distinctly 
perceived.  Our  aim  was  to  determine  the 
natural  pitch  of  each  vowel;  but  unexpected 
difficulties  made  their  appearance,  for  many  of 
the  vowels  seemed  to  possess  a  double  pitch — 
one  due,  probably,  to  the  resonance  of  the  air  in 
the  mouth,  and  the  other  to  the  resonance  of  the 
air  contained  in  the  cavity  behind  the  tongue, 
comprehending  the  pharynx  and  larynx. 

I  hit  upon  an  expedient  for  determining  the 
pitch,  which,  at  that  time,  I  thought  to  be  original 
with  myself.  It  consisted  in  vibrating  a  tuning 
fork  in  front  of  the  mouth  while  the  positions  of 
the  vocal  organs  for  the  various  vowels  were 
silently  taken.  It  was  found  that  each  vowel 
position  caused  the  reinforcement  of  some  par- 
ticular fork  or  forks. 

I  wrote  an  account  of  these  researches  to  Mr. 
Alex.  J.  Ellis,  of  London.  In  reply,  he  informed 
me  that  the  experiments  related  had  already  been 
performed  by  Helmholtz,  and  in  a  much  more 
perfect  manner  than  I  had  done.  Indeed,  he 
said  that  Helmholtz  had  not  only  analyzed  the 
vowel  sounds  into  their  constituent  musical  ele- 
ments, but  had  actually  performed  the  synthesis 
of  them. 

He  had  succeeded  in  producing,  artificially, 
certain  of  the  vowel  sounds  by  causing  tuning 
58 


Bell's-  Telephonic    Researches 

forks  of  different  pitch  to  vibrate  simultaneously 
by  means  of  an  electric  current.  Mr.  Ellis  was 
kind  enough  to  grant  me  an  interview  for  the 
purpose  of  explaining  the  apparatus  employed 
by  Helmholtz  in  producing  these  extraordinary 
effects,  and  I  spent  the  greater  part  of  a  delight- 
ful day  with  him  in  investigating  the  subject. 
At  that  time,  however,  I  was  too  slightly  ac- 
quainted with  the  laws  of  electricity  fully  to 
understand  the  explanations  given;  but  the  in- 
terview had  the  effect  of  arousing  my  interest  in 
the  subjects  of  sound  and  electricity,  and  I  did 
not  rest  until  I  had  obtained  possession  of  a  copy 
of  Helmholtz 's  great  work  "  The  Theory  of  Tone, " 
and  had  attempted,  in  a  crude  and  imperfect 
manner,  it  is  true,  to  reproduce  his  results.  While 
reflecting  upon  the  possibilities  of  the  production 
of  sound  by  electrical  means,  it  struck  me  that 
the  principle  of  vibrating  a  tuning  fork  by  the 
intermittent  attraction  of  an  electro-magnet 
might  be  applied  to  the  electrical  production  of 
music. 

I  imagined  to  myself  a  series  of  tuning  forks 
of  different  pitches,  arranged  to  vibrate  auto- 
matically in  the  manner  shown  by  Helmholtz — 
each  fork  interrupting,  at  every  vibration,  a 
voltaic  current — and  the  thought  occurred,  Why 
should  not  the  depression  of  a  key  like  that  of  a 
piano  direct  the  interrupted  current  from  any 
one  of  these  forks,  through  a  telegraph  wire,  to 
a  series  of  electro-magnets  operating  the  strings 
of  a  piano  or  other  musical  instrument,  in  which 
59 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

case  a  person  might  play  the  tuning  fork  piano 
in  one  place  and  the  music  be  audible  from  the 
electro-magnetic  piano  in  a  distant  city. 

The  more  I  reflected  upon  this  arrangement 
the  more  feasible  did  it  seem  to  me;  indeed,  I 
saw  no  reason  why  the  depression  of  a  number 
of  keys  at  the  tuning  fork  end  of  the  circuit  should 
not  be  followed  by  the  audible  production  of  a 
full  chord  from  the  piano  in  the  distant  city,  each 
tuning  fork  affecting  at  the  receiving  end  that 
string  of  the  piano  with  which  it  was  in  unison. 
At  this  time  the  interest  which  I  felt  in  electricity 
led  me  to  study  the  various  systems  of  telegraphy 
in  use  in  this  country  and  in  America.  I  was 
much  struck  with  the  simplicity  of  the  Morse 
alphabet,  and  with  the  fact  that  it  could  be 
read  by  sound.  Instead  of  having  the  dots  and 
dashes  recorded  on  paper,  the  operators  were 
in  the  habit  of  observing  the  duration  of  the 
click  of  the  instruments,  and  in  this  way  were 
enabled  to  distinguish  by  ear  the  various  signals. 

It  struck  me  that  in  a  similar  manner  the  dura- 
tion of  a  musical  note  might  be  made  to  repre- 
sent the  dot  or  dash  of  the  telegraph  code,  so  that 
a  person  might  operate  one  of  the  keys  of  the 
tuning  fork  piano  referred  to  above,  and  the  dura- 
tion of  the  sound  proceeding  from  the  corre- 
sponding string  of  the  distant  piano  be  observed 
by  an  operator  stationed  there.  It  seemed  to 
me  that  in  this  way  a  number  of  distinct  tele- 
graph messages  might  be  sent  simultaneously 
from  the  tuning  fork  piano  to  the  other  end  of  the 
60 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

circuit  by  operators,  each  manipulating  a  differ- 
ent key  of  the  instrument.  These  messages  would 
be  read  bv  operators  stationed  at  the  distant 
piano,  each  receiving  operator  listening  for  sig- 
nals for  a  certain  definite  pitch,  and  ignoring  all 
others.  In  this  way  could  be  accomplished  the 
simultaneous  transmission  of  a  number  of  tele- 
graphic messages  along  a  single  wire,  the  number 
being  limited  only  by  the  delicacy  of  the  listener's 
ear.  The  idea  of  increasing  the  carrying  power 


,       .          Direct 

,            •»  Reverted. 
mlntermUtad&f     f  if         n 

..&.!.-  

a.    d 

A  TfnJ  1  tary  k      b      * 

~iT  f~^r^~'~*r^ 

Fig.  i 

of  a  telegraph  wire  in  this  way  took  complete 
possession  of  my  mind,  and  it  was  this  practical 
end  that  I  had  in  view  when  I  commenced  my 
researches  in  electric  telephony. 

In  the  progress  of  science  it  is  universally  found 
that  complexity  leads  to  simplicity,  and  in  nar- 
rating the  history  of  scientific  research  it  is  often 
advisable  to  begin  at  the  end. 

In  glancing  back  over  my  own  researches,  I 
find  it  necessary  to  designate,  by  distinct  names, 
a  variety  of  electrical  currents  by  means  of  which 
sounds  can  be  produced,  and  I  shall  direct  your 
attention  to  several  distinct  species  of  what  may 
61 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

be  termed  telephonic  currents  of  electricity.  In 
order  that  the  peculiarities  of  these  currents  may 
be  clearly  understood,  I  shall  project  upon  the 
screen  a  graphical  illustration  of  the  different 
varieties. 

The  graphical  method  of  representing  electrical 
currents  shown  in  Fig.  i  is  the  best  means  I  have 
been  able  to  devise  of  studying,  in  an  accurate 
manner,  the  effects  produced  by  various  forms 
of  telephonic  apparatus,  and  it  has  led  me  to  the 
conception  of  that  peculiar  species  of  telephonic 
current,  here  designated  as  undulatory,  which  has 
rendered  feasible  the  artificial  production  of 
articulate  speech  by  electrical  means. 

A  horizontal  line  (g  g')  is  taken  as  the  zero  of 
current,  and  impulses  of  positive  electricity  are 
represented  above  the  zero  line,  and  negative 
impulses  below  it,  or  vice  versa. 

The  vertical  thickness  of  any  electrical  im- 
pulse (b  or  d),  measured  from  the  zero  line,  in- 
dicates the  intensity  of  the  electrical  current  at 
the  point  observed,  and  the  horizontal  extension 
of  the  electric  line  (b  or  d)  indicates  the  duration 
of  the  impulse. 

Nine  varieties  of  telephonic  currents  may  be 
distinguished,  but  it  will  only  be  necessary  to 
show  you  six  of  these.  The  three  primary  varie- 
ties designated  as  intermittent,  pulsatory  and 
undulatory,  are  represented  in  lines  i,  2  and  3. 

Sub-varieties  of  these  can  be  distinguished  as 
direct  or  reversed  currents,  according  as  the 
electrical  impulses  are  all  of  one  kind  or  are  alter- 
62 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

nately  positive  and  negative.  Direct  currents 
may  still  further  be  distinguished  as  positive 
or  negative,  according  as  the  impulses  are  of  one 
kind  or  of  the  other. 

An  intermittent  current  is  characterized  by 
the  alternate  presence  and  absence  of  electricity 
upon  the  circuit. 

A  pulsatory  current  results  from  sudden  or 
instantaneous  changes  in  the  intensity  of  a  con- 
tinuous current;  and 

An  undulatory  current  is  a  current  of  electric- 
ity, the  intensity  of  which  varies  in  a  manner  pro- 
portional to  the  velocity  of  the  motion  of  a  par- 
ticle of  air  during  the  production  of  a  sound: 
thus  the  curve  representing  graphically  the  un- 
dulatory current  for  a  simple  musical  note  is  the 
curve  expressive  of  a  simple  pendulous  vibra- 
tion— that  is,  a  sinusoidal  curve. 

And  here  I  may  remark,  that,  although  the 
conception  of  the  undulatory  current  of  electri- 
city is  entirely  original  with  myself,  methods  of 
producing  sound  by  means  of  intermittent  and 
pulsatory  currents  have  long  been  known.  For 
instance,  it  was  long  since  discovered  that  an 
electro-magnet  gives  forth  a  decided  sound  when 
it  is  suddenly  magnetized  or  demagnetized. 
When  the  circuit  upon  which  it  is  placed  is  rapidly 
made  and  broken,  a  succession  of  explosive 
noises  proceeds  from  the  magnet.  These  sounds 
produce  upon  the  ear  the  effect  of  a  musical  note 
when  the  current  is  interrupted  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  times  per  second. 
63 


Masterpieces   of   Science 


For  several  years  my  attention  was  almost 
exclusively  directed  to  the  production  of  an  in- 
strument for  making  and  breaking  a  voltaic 
circuit  with  extreme  rapidity,  to  take  the  place 
of  the  transmitting  tuning  fork  used  in  Helm- 
holtz's  researches.  Without  going  into  details, 
I  shall  merely  say  that  the  great  defects  of  this 
plan  of  multiple  telegraphy  were  found  to  con- 


-* 


Fig.  2 

sist,  first,  in  the  fact  that  the  receiving  oper- 
ators were  required  to  possess  a  good  musical  ear 
in  order  to  discriminate  the  signals;  and  secondly, 
that  the  signals  could  only  pass  in  one  direction 
along  the  line  (so  that  two  wires  would  be  neces- 
sary in  order  to  complete  communication  in  both 
directions).  The  first  objection  was  got  over 
by  employing  the  device  which  I  term  a  "vibra- 
tory circuit  breaker, ' '  whereby  musical  signals 
can  be  automatically  recorded.  .  .  . 
64 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

I  have  formerly  stated  that  Helmholtz  was  en- 
abled to  produce  vowel  sounds  artificially  by  com- 
bining musical  tones  of  different  pitches  and  in- 
tensities. His  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 
Tuning  forks  of  different  pitch  are  placed  be- 
tween the  poles  of  electro-magnets  (ai,  02,  &c.), 
and  are  kept  in  continuous  vibration  by  the  action 
of  an  intermittent  current  from  the  fork  b.  Reso- 
nators, i,  2,  3,  etc.,  are  arranged  so  as  to  rein- 
force the  sounds  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  ac- 
cording as  the  exterior  orifices  are  enlarged  or 
contracted. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  upon  Helmholtz 's  plan 
the  tuning  forks  themselves  produce  tones  of 
uniform  intensity,  the  loudness  being  varied 
by  an  external  reinforcement;  but  it  struck  me 
that  the  same  results  would  be  obtained,  and  in 
a  much  more  perfect*  manner,  by  causing  the 
tuning  forks  themselves  to  vibrate  with  different 
degrees  of  amplitude.  I  therefore  devised  the 
apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  3,  which  was  my  first 
form  of  articulating  telephone.  In  this  figure  a 
harp  of  steel  rods  is  employed,  attached  to  the 
poles  of  a  permanent  magnet,  N.  S.  When  any 
one  of  the  rods  is  thrown  into  vibration  an  un- 
dulatory  current  is  produced  in  the  coils  of  the 
electro-magnet  E,  and  the  electro-magnet  E'  at- 
tracts the  rods  of  the  harp  H'  with  a  varying 
force,  throwing  into  vibration  that  rod  which  is 
in  unison  with  that  vibrating  at  the  other  end 
of  the  circuit.  Not  only  so,  but  the  amplitude  of 
vibration  in  the  one  will  determine  the  amplitude 
65 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

of  vibration  in  the  other,  for  the  intensity  of  the 
induced  current  is  determined  by  the  amplitude 
of  the  inducing  vibration,  and  the  amplitude  of 
the  vibration  at  the  receiving  end  depends  upon 
the  intensity  of  the  attractive  impulses.  When 
we  sing  into  a  piano,  certain  of  the  strings  of  the 
instrument  are  set  in  vibration  sympathetically 
by  the  action  of  the  voice  with  different  degrees 
of  amplitude,  and  a  sound,  which  is  an  approxi- 
mation to  the  vowel  uttered,  is  produced  from  the 


Fig.  3 

piano.  Theory  shows  that,  had  the  piano  a  very 
much  larger  number  of  strings  to  the  octave,  the 
vowel  sounds  would  be  perfectly  reproduced. 
My  idea  of  the  action  of  the  apparatus,  shown 
in  Fig.  3,  was  this:  Utter  a  sound  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  harp  H,  and  certain  of  the  rods 
would  be  thrown  into  vibration  with  different 
amplitudes.  At  the  other  end  of  the  circuit  the 
corresponding  rods  of  the  harp  H  would  vibrate 
with  their  proper  relations  of  force,  and  the 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

timbre  [characteristic  quality]  of  the  sound  would 
be  reproduced.  The  expense  of  constructing  such 
an  apparatus  as  that  shown  in  figure  3  deterred 
me  from  making  the  attempt,  and  I  sought  to 
simplify  the  apparatus  before  venturing  to  have 
it  made. 

I  have  before  alluded  to  the  invention  by  my 
father  of  a  system  of  physiological  symbols  for' 


Fig.  4 

representing  the  action  of  the  vocal  organs,  and 
I  had  been  invited  by  the  Boston  Board  of  Edu- 
cation to  conduct  a  series  of  experiments  with 
the  system  in  the  Boston  school  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb.  It  is  well  known  that  deaf  mutes  are 
dumb  merely  because  they  are  deaf,  and  that 
there  is  no  defect  in  their  vocal  organs  to  inca- 
pacitate them  from  utterance.  Hence  it  was 
thought  that  my  father's  system  of  pictorial 
symbols,  popularly  known  as  visible  speech, 
67 


Masterpieces   of  'Science 

might  prove  a  means  whereby  we  could  teach 
the  deaf  and  dumb  to  use  their  vocal  organs  and 
to  speak.  The  great  success  of  these  experiments 
urged  upon  me  the  advisability  of  devising 
method  of  exhibiting  the  vibrations  of  sound 
optically,  for  use  in  teaching  the  deaf  and  dumb. 
For  some  time  I  carried  on  experiments  with  the 
manometric  capsule  of  Koenig  and  with  the 
phonautograph  of  Leon  Scott.  The  scientific 
apparatus  in  the  Institute  of  Technology  in 
Boston  was  freely  placed  at  my  disposal  for 
these  experiments,  and  it  happened  that  at  that 
time  a  student  of  the  Institute  of  Technology, 
Mr.  Maurey,  had  invented  an  improvement  upon 
the  phonautograph.  He  had  succeeded  in  vibrat- 
ing by  the  voice  a  stylus  of  wood  about  a  foot  in 
length,  which  was  attached  to  the  membrane  of 
the  phonautograph,  and  in  this  way  he  had 
been  enabled  to  obtain  enlarged  tracings  upon  a 
plane  surface  of  smoked  glass.  With  this  appa- 
ratus I  succeeded  in  producing  very  beautiful 
tracings  of  the  vibrations  of  the  air  for  vowel 
sounds.  Some  of  these  tracings  are  shown  in 
Fig.  4.  I  was  much  struck  with  this  improved 
form  of  apparatus,  and  it  occurred  to  me  that 
there  was  a  remarkable  likeness  between  the 
manner  in  which  this  piece  of  wood  was  vibrated 
by  the  membrane  of  the  phonautograph  and  the 
manner  in  which  the  ossicula'  [small  bones]  of 
the  human  ear  were  moved  by  the  tympanic 
membrane.  I  determined  therefore,  to  con- 
struct a  phonautograph  modelled  still  more 
68 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

closely  upon  the  mechanism  of  the  human  ear, 
and  for  this  purpose  I  sought  the  assistance  of  a 


Fig.  5 


distinguished  aurist  in  Boston,  Dr.  Clarence  J. 

Blake.     He  suggested  the  use  of  the  human  ear 

itself  as  a  phonautograph,  instead  of  making  an 

69 


Masterpieces   of  Science 

artificial  imitation  of  it.  The  idea  was  novel 
and  struck  me  accordingly,  and  I  requested  my 
friend  to  prepare  a  specimen  for  me,  which  he 
did.  The  apparatus,  as  finally  constructed,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  stapes  [inmost  of  the 
three  auditory  ossicles]  was  removed  and  a 
pointed  piece  of  hay  about  an  inch  in  length 
was  attached  to  the  end  of  the  incus  [the  middle 
of  the  three  auditory  ossicles].  Upon  moisten- 
ing the  membrana  tympani  [membrane  of  the 


Fig.  6 

ear  drum]  and  the  ossiculae  with  a  mixture  of 
glycerine  and  water  the  necessary  mobility  of 
the  parts  was  obtained,  and  upon  singing  into  the 
external  artificial  ear  the  piece  of  hay  was  thrown 
into  vibration,  and  tracings  were  obtained  upon 
a  plane  surface  of  smoked  glass  passed  rapidly 
underneath.  While  engaged  in  these  experi- 
ments I  was  struck  with  the  remarkable  dispro- 
portion in  weight  between  the  membrane  and 
the  bones  that  were  vibrated  by  it.  It  occurred 
to  me  that  if  a  membrane  as  thin  as  tissue  paper 
could  control  the  vibration  of  bones  that  were, 
compared  to  it,  of  immense  size  and  weight,  why 
70 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

should  not  a  larger  and  thicker  membrane  be 
able  to  vibrate  a  piece  of  iron  in  front  of  an 
electro-magnet,  in  which  case  the  complication 
of  steel  rods  shown  in  my  first  form  of  telephone, 
Fig.  3,  could  be  done  away  with,  and  a  simple 
piece  of  iron  attached  to  a  membrane  be  placed 
at  either  end  of  the  telegraphic  circuit. 

Figure  6  shows  the  form  of  apparatus  that  I 
was  then  employing  for  producing  undulatory 
currents  of  electricity  for  the  purpose  of  multiple 
telegraphy.  A  steel  reed,  A,  was  clamped  firmly 
by  one  extremity  to  the  uncovered  leg  h  of  an 
electro-magnet  E,  and  the  free  end  of  the  reed 
projected  above  the  covered  leg.  When  the 
reed  A  was  vibrated  in  any  mechanical  way  the 
battery  current  was  thrown  into  waves,  and 
electrical  undulations  traversed  the  circuit 
B  E  W  E',  throwing  into  vibration  the  corre- 
sponding reed  A'  at  the  other  end  of  the  circuit. 
I  immediately  proceeded  to  put  my  new  idea  to 
the  test  of  practical  experiment,  and  for  this 
purpose  I  attached  the  reed  A  (Fig.  7)  loosely 
by  one  extremity  to  the  uncovered  pole  \  of  the 
magnet,  and  fastened  the  other  extremity  to  the 
centre  of  a  stretched  membrane  of  goldbeaters' 
skin  n.  I  presumed  that  upon  speaking  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  membrane  n  it  would  be 
thrown  into  vibration  and  cause  the  steel  reed  A 
to  move  in  a  similar  manner,  occasioning  undula- 
tions in  the  electrical  current  that  would  corre- 
spond to  the  changes  in  the  density  of  the  air 
during  the  production  of  the  sound ;  and  I  further 
71 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

thought  that  the  change  of  the  density  of  the 
current  at  the  receiving  end  would  cause  the 
magnet  there  to  attract  the  reed  A'  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  should  copy  the  motion  of  the 
reed  A,  in  which  case  its  movements  would  oc- 
casion a  sound  from  the  membrane  nr  similar 
in  timbre  to  that  which  had  occasioned  the  origi- 
nal vibration. 


Fig.  7 

The  results,  however,  were  unsatisfactory  and 
discouraging.  My  friend,  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Wat- 
son, who  assisted  me  in  this  first  experiment, 
declared  that  he  heard  a  faint  sound  proceed 
from  the  telephone  at  his  end  of  the  circuit,  but  I 
was  unable  to  verify  his  assertion.  After  many 
experiments,  attended  by  the  same  only  partially 
successful  results,  I  determined  to  reduce  the 
size  and  weight  of  the  spring  as  much  as  possible. 
For  tin's  purpose  I  glued  a  piece  of  clock  spring 
about  the  size  and  shape  of  my  thumb  nail, 
firmly  to  the  centre  of  the  diaphragm,  and  had 
a  similar  instrument  at  the  other  end  (Fig.  8) ; 
we  were  then  enabled  to  obtain  distinctly  audi- 
72 


Bell's  Telephonic    Researches 

ble  effects.  I  remember  an  experiment  made 
with  this  telephone,  which  at  the  time  gave 
me  great  satisfaction  and  delight.  One  of  the 
telephones  was  placed  in  my  lecture  room  in  the 
Boston  University,  and  the  other  in  the  base- 
ment of  the  adjoining  building.  One  of  my 
students  repaired  to  the  distant  telephone  to 
observe  the  effects  of  articulate  speech,  while  I 
uttered  the  sentence,  "  Do  you  understand  what  I 


Fig.  8 

say?"  into  the  telephone  placed  in  the  lecture 
hall.  To  my  delight  an  answer  was  returned 
through  the  instrument  itself,  articulate  sounds 
proceeded  from  the  steel  spring  attached  to  the 
membrane,  and  I  heard  the  sentence,  "Yes,  I 
understand  you  perfectly."  It  is  a  mistake, 
however,  to  suppose  that  the  articulation  was  by 
any  means  perfect,  and  expectancy  no  doubt  had 
a  great  deal  to  do  with  my  recognition  of  the 
sentence;  still,  the  articulation  was  there,  and  I 
recognized  the  fact  that  the  indistinctness  was 
73 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

entirely  due  to  the  imperfection  of  the  instru- 
ment. I  will  not  trouble  you  by  detailing  the 
various  stages  through  which  the  apparatus 
passed,  but  shall  merely  say  that  after  a  time  I 
produced  the  form  of  instrument  shown  inFig.g, 
which  served  very  well  as  a  receiving  telephone. 
In  this  condition  my  invention  was,  in  1876, 
exhibited  at  the  Centennial  Exhibition  in  Phila- 
delphia. The  telephone  shown  in  Fig.  8  was 


Fig.  9 

used  as  a  transmitting  instrument,  and  that  in 
Fig.  9  as  a  receiver,  so  that  vocal  communication 
was  only  established  in  one  direction. 

The  articulation  produced  from  the  instru- 
ment shown  in  Fig.  9  was  remarkably  distinct, 
but  its  great  defect  consisted  in  the  fact  that  it 
could  not  be  used  as  a  transmitting  instrument, 
and  thus  two  telephones  were  required  at  each 
station,  one  for  transmitting  and  one  .for  receiv- 
ing spoken  messages. 

It  was  determined  to  vary  the  construction  of 
74 


Bell's  Telephonic    Researches 

the  telephone  shown  in  Fig.  8,  and  I  sought,  by 
changing  the  size  and  tension  of  the  membrane, 
the  diameter  and  thickness  of  the  steel  spring, 
the  size  and  power  of  the  magnet,  and  the  coils  of 
insulated  wire  around  their  poles,  to  discover 
empirically  the  exact  effect  of  each  element  of 
the  combination,  and  thus  to  deduce  a  more 
perfect  form  of  apparatus.  It  was  found  that  a 
marked  increase  in  the  loudness  of  the  sounds 


Fig.  10 

resulted  from  shortening  the  length  of  the  coils 
of  wire,  and  by  enlarging  the  iron  diaphragm 
which  was  glued  to  the  membrane.  In  the  latter 
case,  also,  the  distinctness  of  the  articulation  was 
improved.  Finally,  the  membrane  of  gold 
beaters'  skin  was  discarded  entirely,  and  a  simple 
iron  plate  was  used  instead,  and  at  once  intelligi- 
ble articulation  was  obtained.  The  new  form 
of  instrument  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  10,  and,  as 
had  been  long  anticipated,  it  was  proved  that  the 
only  use  of  the  battery  was  to  magnetize  the  iron 
75 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

core,  for  the  effects  were  equally  audible  when  the 
battery  was  omitted  and  a  rod  of  magnetized 
steel  substituted  for  the  iron  core  of  the  magnet. 
It  was  my  original  intention,  as  shown  in  Fig.3, 
and  it  was  always  claimed  by  me,  that  the  final 
form  of  telephone  would  be  operated  by  perma- 
nent magnets  in  place  of  batteries,  and  numer- 
ous experiments  had  been  carried  on  by  Mr. 


Fig.  ii 

Watson  and  myself  privately  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  this  effect. 

At  the  time  the  instruments  were  first  exhibited 
in  public  the  results  obtained  with  permanent 
magnets  were  not  nearly  so  striking  as  when  a 
voltaic  battery  was  employed,  wherefore  we 
thought  it  best  to  exhibit  only  the  latter  form  of 
instrument. 

The  interest  excited  by  the  first  published  ac- 
counts of  the  operation  of  the  telephone  led  many 
persons  to  investigate  the  subject,  and  I  doubt 
not  that  numbers  of  experimenters  have  inde- 
76 


Bell's  Telephonic    Researches 

pendently  discovered  that  permanent  magnets 
might  be  employed  instead  of  voltaic  batteries. 
Indeed,  one  gentleman,  Professor  Dolbear,  of 
Tufts  College,  not  only  claims  to  have  discovered 
the  magneto-electric  telephone,  but,  I  under- 
stand, charges  me  with  having  obtained  the  idea 
from  him  through  the  medium  of  a  mutual  friend. 

A  still  more  powerful  form  of  apparatus  was 
constructed  by  using  a  powerful  compound  horse- 
shoe magnet  in  place  of  the  straight  rod  which 
had  been  previously  used  (see  Fig.  n).  Indeed, 
the  sounds  produced  by  means  of  this  instru- 
ment were  of  sufficient  loudness  to  be  faintly 
audible  to  a  large  audience,  and  in  this  condition 
the  instrument  was  exhibited  in  the  Essex  In- 
stitute, in  Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  the.  1 2th 
of  February,  1877,  on  which  occasion  a  short 
speech  shouted  into  a  similar  telephone  in  Boston 
sixteen  miles  away,  was  heard  by  the  audience  in 
Salem.  The  tones  of  the  speaker's  voice  were 
distinctly  audible  to  an  audience  of  six  hundred 
people,  but  the  articulation  was  only  distinct  at 
a  distance  of  about  six  feet.  On  the  same  oc- 
casion, also,  a  report  of  the  lecture  was  trans- 
mitted by  word  of  mouth  from  Salem  to  Boston, 
and  published  in  the  papers  the  next  morning. 

From  the  form  of  telephone  shown  in  Fig.  10 
to  the  present  form  of  the  instrument  (Fig.  i  2) 
is  but  a  step.  It  is,  in  fact,  the  arrangement  of 
Fig.  10  in  a  portable  form,  the  magnet  F.  H.  be- 
ing placed  inside  the  handle  and  a  more  con- 
venient form  of  mouthpiece  provided  .... 
77 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

It  was  always  my  belief  that  a  certain  ratio 
would  be  found  between  the  several  parts  of  a  tele- 
phone, and  that  the  size  of  the  instrument  was 
immaterial ;  but  Professor  Peirce  was  the  first  to 
demonstrate  the  extreme  smallnessof  the  magnets 
which  might  be  employed.  And  here,  in  order 
to  show  the  parallel  lines  in  which  we  were  work- 
ing, I  may  mention  the  fact  that  two  or  three 
days  after  I  had  constructed  a  telephone  of  the 
portable  form  (Fig.  12),  containing  the  magnet 
inside  the  handle,  Dr.  Channing  was  kind  enough 
to  send  me  a  pair  of  telephones  of  a  similar 
pattern,  which  had  been  invented  by  experi- 
menters at  Providence.  The  convenient  form 
of  the  mouthpiece  shown  in  Fig.  1 2 ,  now  adopted 
by  me,  was  invented  solely  by  my  friend,  Pro- 
fessor Peirce.  I  must  also  express  my  obliga- 
tions to  my  friend  and  associate,  Mr.  Thomas  A. 
Watson,  of  Salem,  Massachusetts,  who  has  for 
two  years  past  given  me  his  personal  assistance 
in  carrying  on  my  researches. 

In  pursuing  my  investigations  I  have  ever  had 
one  end  in  view — the  practical  improvement  of 
electric  telegraphy — but  I  have  come  across 
many  facts  which,  while  having  no  direct  bearing 
upon  the  subject  of  telegraphy,  may  yet  possess 
an  interest  for  you. 

For  instance,  I  have  found  that  a  musical  tone 
proceeds  from  a  piece  of  plumbago  or  retort 
carbon  when  an  intermittent  current  of  electric- 
ity is  passed  through  it,  and  I  have  observed  the 
most  curious  audible  effects  prodticed  by  the 
78 


Bell's   Telephonic    Researches 

passage  of  reversed  intermittent  currents  through 
the  human  body.  A  breaker  was  placed  in 
circuit  with  the  primary  wires  of  an  induction 
coil,  and  the  fine  wires  were  connected  with  two 
strips  of  brass.  One  of  these  strips  was  held 
closely  against  the  ear,  and  a  loud  sound  pro- 
ceeded from  it  whenever  the  other  slip  was 
touched  with  the  other  hand.  The  strips  of 
brass  were  next  held  one  in  each  hand.  The 
induced  currents  occasioned  a  muscular  tremor 
in  the  fingers.  Upon  placing  my  forefinger  to  my 
ear  a  loud  crackling  noise  was  audible,  seemingly 
proceeding  from  the  finger  itself.  A  friend  who 
was  present  placed  my  finger  to  his  ear,  but  heard 
nothing.  I  requested  him  to  hold  the  strips 
himself.  He  was  then  distinctly  conscious  of  a 
noise  (which  I  was  unable  to  perceive)  proceed- 
ing from  his  finger.  In  this  case  a  portion  of  the 
induced  current  passed  through  the  head  of  the 
observer  when  he  placed  his  ear  against  his  own 
finger,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  sound  was  oc- 
casioned by  a  vibration  of  the  surfaces  of  the  ear 
and  finger  in  contact. 

When  two  persons  receive  a  shock  from  a 
Ruhmkorff's  coil  by  clasping  hands,  each  taking 
hold  of  one  wire  of  the  coil  with  the  free  hand,  a 
sound  proceeds  from  the  clasped  hands.  The 
effect  is  not  produced  when  the  hands  are  moist. 
When  either  of  the  two  touches  the  body  of  the 
pther  a  loud  sound  comes  from  the  parts  in  con- 
tact. When  the  arm  of  one  is  placed  against  the 
arm  of  the  other,  the  noise  produced  can  be  heard 
79 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

at  a  distance  of  several  feet.  In  all  these  cases  a 
slight  shock  is  experienced  so  long  as  the  contact 
is  preserved.  The  introduction  of  a  piece  of 
paper  between  the  parts  in  contact  does  not  ma- 
terially interfere  with  the  production  of  the 
sounds,  but  the  unpleasant  effects  of  the  shock 
are  avoided. 

When  an  intermittent  current  from  a  Ruhm- 
korff's  coil  is  passed  throtigh  the  arms  a  musical 


Fig.  12 

note  can  be  perceived  wnen  the  ear  is  closely 
applied  to  the  arm  of  the  person  experimented 
upon.  The  sound  seems  to  proceed  from  the 
muscles  of  the  fore-arm  and  from  the  biceps 
muscle.  Mr.  Elisha  Gray  has  also  produced 
audible  effects  by  the  passage  of  electricity 
through  the  human  body. 

An  extremely  loud  musical  note  is  occasioned 
by  the  spark  of  a   Ruhmkorff's  coil  when  the 
primary  circuit  is  made  and  broken  with  suffi- 
cient rapidity.      When  two  breakers    of    differ- 
80 


Bell's  Telephonic    Researches 

ent  pitch  are  caused  simultaneously  to  open  and 
close  the  primary  circuit  a  double  tone  proceeds 
from  the  spark. 

A  curious  discovery,  which  may  be  of  interest 
to  you,,  has  been  made  by  Professor  Blake.  He 
constructed  a  telephone  in  which  a  rod  of  soft 
iron,  about  six  feet  in  length,  was  used  instead 
of  a  permanent  magnet.  A  friend  sang  a  con- 
tinuous musical  tone  into  the  mouthpiece  of  a 
telephone,  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  12,  which  was 
connected  with  the  soft  iron  instrument  alluded 
to  above.  It  was  found  that  the  loudness  of  the 
sound  produced  in  this  telephone  varied  with  the 
direction  in  which  the  iron  rod  was  held,  and 
that  the  maximum  effect  was  produced  when  the 
rod  was  in  the  position  of  the  dipping  needle. 
This  curious  discovery  of  Professor  Blake  has 
been  verified  by  myself. 

When  a  telephone  is  placed  in  circuit  with  a 
telegraph  line  the  telephone  is  found  seemingly  to 
emit  sounds  on  its  own  account.  The  most 
extraordinary  noises  are  often  produced,  the 
causes  of  which  are  at  present  very  obscure. 
One  class  of  sounds  is  produced  by  the  inductive 
influence  of  neighbouring  wires  and  by  leakage 
from  them,  the  signals  of  the  Morse  alphabet 
passing  over  neighbouring  wires  being  audible  in 
the  telephone,  and  another  class  can  be  traced 
to  earth  currents  upon  the  wire,  a  curious  modifi- 
cation of  this  sound  revealing  the  presence  of 
detective  joints  in  the  wire. 

Professor  Blake  informs  me  that  he  has  been 
81 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

able  to  use  the  railroad  track  for  conversational 
purposes  in  place  of  a  telegraph  wire,  and  he 
further  states  that  when  only  one  telephone  was 
connected  with  the  track  the  sounds  of  Morse 
operating  were  distinctly  audible  in  the  tele- 
phone, although  the  nearest  telegraph  wires 
were  at  least  fifty  feet  distant. 

Professor  Peirce  has  observed  the  most  singular 
sounds  produced  from  a  telephone  in  connection 
with  a  telegraph  wire  during  the  aurora  borealis, 
and  I  have  just  heard  of  a  curious  phenomenon 
lately  observed  by  Dr.  Channing.  In  the  city 
of  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  there  is  an  over- 
house  wire  about  one  mile  in  extent  with  a  tele- 
phone at  either  end.  On  one  occasion  the  sound 
of  music  and  singing  was  faintly  audible  in  one 
of  the  telephones.  It  seemed  as  if  some  one  were 
practising  vocal  music  with  a  pianoforte  accom- 
paniment. The  natural  supposition  was  that 
experiments  were  being  made  with  the  telephone 
at  the  other  end  of  the  circuit,  but  upon  inquiry 
this  proved  not  to  have  been  the  case.  Atten- 
tion having  thus  been  directed  to  the  phenome- 
non, a  watch  was  kept  upon  the  instruments,  and 
upon  a  subsequent  occasion  the  same  fact  was 
observed  at  both  ends  of  the  line  by  Dr.  Chan- 
ning and  his  friends.  It  was  proved  that  the 
sounds  continued  for  about  two  hours,  and 
usually  commenced  about  the  same  time.  A 
searching  examination  of  the  line  disclosed 
nothing  abnormal  in  its  condition,  and  I  am 
unable  to  give  you  any  explanation  of  this  curi- 
82 


Bell's    Telephonic    Researches 

ous  phenomenon.  Dr.  Channing  has,  however, 
addressed  a  letter  upon  the  subject  to  the  editor 
of  one  of  the  Providence  papers,  giving  the  names 
of  such  songs  as  were  recognized,  and  full  details 
of  the  observations,  in  the  hope  that  publicity 
may  lead  to  the  discovery  of  the  performer, 
and  thus  afford  a  solution  of  the  mystery. 

My  friend,  Mr.  Frederick  A.  Gower,  communi- 
cated to  me  a  curious  observation  made  by  him 
regarding  the  slight  earth  connection  required 
to  establish  a  circuit  for  the  telephone,  and  to- 
gether we  carried  on  a  series  of  experiments 
with  rather  startling  results.  We  took  a  couple 
of  telephones  and  an  insulated  wire  about  100 
yards  in  length  into  a  garden,  and  were  enabled 
to  carry  on  conversation  with  the  greatest  ease 
when  we  held  in  our  hands  what  should  have 
been  the  earth  wire,  so  that  the  connection  with 
the  ground  was  formed  at  either  end  through 
our  bodies,  our  feet  being  clothed  with  cotton 
socks  and  leather  boots.  The  day  was  fine,  and 
the  grass  upon  which  we  stood  was  seemingly 
perfectly  dry.  Upon  standing  upon  a  gravel 
walk  the  vocal  sounds,  though  much  diminished, 
were  still  perfectly  intelligible,  and  the  same 
result  occurred  when  standing  upon  a  brick  wall 
one  fcot  in  height,  but  no  sound  was  audible 
when  one  of  us  stood  upon  a  block  of  freestone. 

One   experiment  which  we  made  is  so   very 

interesting  that  I  must  speak  of  it  in  detail.     Mr. 

Gower  made  earth  connection  at  his  end  of  the 

line  by  standing  upon  a  grass  plot,  whilst  at  the 

83 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

other  end  of  the  line  I  stood  upon  a  wooden 
board.  I  requested  Mr.  Gower  to  sing  a  contin- 
uous musical  note,  and  to  my  surprise  the  sound 
was  very  distinctly  audible  from  the  telephone 
in  my  hand.  Upon  examining  my  feet  I  dis- 
covered that  a  single  blade  of  grass  was  bent  over 
the  edge  of  the  board,  and  that  my  foot  touched 
it.  The  removal  of  this  blade  of  grass  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  cessation  of  the  sound  from  the 
telephone,  and  I  found  that  the  moment  I 
touched  with  the  toe  of  my  boot  a  blade  of  grass 
or  the  petal  of  a  daisy  the  sound  was  again 
audible. 

The  question  will  naturally  arise,  Through 
what  length  of  wire  can  the  telephone  be  used  ? 
In  reply  to  this  I  may  say  that  the  maximum 
amount  of  resistance  through  which  the  undula- 
tory  current  will  pass,  and  yet  retain  sufficient; 
force  to  produce  an  audible  sound  at  the  distant 
end,  has  yet  to  be  determined;  no  difficulty, has, 
however,  been  experienced  in  laboratory  ex- 
periments in  conversing  through  a  resistance  of 
60,000  ohms,  which  has  been  the  maximum  at  my 
disposal.  On  one  occasion,  not  having  a  rheostat 
[for  producing  resistance]  at  hand,  I  passed 
the  current  through  the  bodies  of  sixteen  persons, 
who  stood  hand  in  hand.  The  longest  length  of 
real  telegraph  line  through  which  I  have  at- 
tempted to  converse  has  been  about  250  miles. 
On  this  occasion  no  difficulty  was  experienced 
so  long  as  parallel  lines  were  not  in  operation. 
Sunday  was  chosen  as  the  day  on  which  it  was 
84 


Bell's    Telephonic    Researches 

probable  other  circuits  would  be  at  rest.  Con- 
versation was  carried  on  between  myself,  in  New 
York,  and  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Watson,  in  Boston, 
until  the  opening  of  business  upon  the  other 
wires.  When  this  happened  the  vocal  sounds 
were  very  much  diminished,  but  still  audible. 
It  seemed,  indeed,  like  talking  through  a  storm. 
Conversation,  though  possible,  could  be  carried 
on  with  difficulty,  owing  to  the  distracting 
nature  of  the  interfering  currents. 

I  am  informed  by  my  friend  Mr.  Preece  that 
conversation  has  been  successfully  carried  on 
through  a  submarine  cable,  sixty  miles  in  length, 
extending  from  Dartmouth  to  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  by  means  of  hand  telephones. 


85 


PHOTOGRAPHING  THE  UNSEEN:  THE 
ROENTGEN  RAY 

H.  J.  W.  DAM 

[By    permission   from   McClure's    Magazine,  April,   1896, 
copyright  by  S.  S.  McClure,   Limited.] 

IN  all  the  history  of  scientific  discovery  there 
has  never  been,  perhaps,  so  general,  rapid,  and 
dramatic  an  effect  wrought  on  the  scientific 
centres  of  Europe  as, has  followed,  in  the  past 
four  weeks,  upon  an  announcement  made  to  the 
Wiirzburg  Physico-Medical  Society,  at  their 
December  [1895]  meeting,  by  Professor  William 
Konrad  Rontgen,  professor  of  physics  at  the 
Royal  University  of  Wiirzburg.  The  first  news 
which  reached  London  was  by  telegraph  from 
Vienna  to  the  effect  that  a  Professor  Rontgen, 
until  then  the  possessor  of  only  a  local  fame  in 
the  town  mentioned,  had  discovered  a  new  kind 
of  light,  which  penetrated  and  photographed 
through  everything.  This  news  was  received 
with  a  mild  interest,  some  amusement,  and  much 
incredulity;  and  a  week  passed.  Then,  by  mail 
and  telegraph,  came  daily  clear  indications  of 
the  stir  which  the  discovery  was  making  in  all 
the  great  line  of  universities  between  Vienna  and 
Berlin.  Then  Ront  gen's  own  report  arrived, 
so  cool,  so  business-like,  and  so  truly  scientific  in 
character,  that  it  left  no  doubt  either  of  the 
87 


Masterpieces   of  Science 

truth  or  of  the  great  importance  of  the  preceding 
reports.  Today,  four  weeks  after  the  announce- 
ment, Rontgen's  name  is  apparently  in  every 
scientific  publication  issued  this  week  in  Europe ; 
and  accounts  of  his  experiments,  of  the  experi- 
ments of  others  following  his  method,  and  of 
theories  as  to  the  strange  new  force  which  he  has 
been  the  first  to  observe,  fill  pages  of  every  scien- 
tific journal  that  comes  to  hand.  And  before 
the  necessary  time  elapses  for  this  article  to 
attain  publication  in  America,  it  is  in  all  ways 
probable  that  the  laboratories  and  lecture-rooms 
of  the  United  States  will  also  be  giving  full  evi- 
dence of  this  contagious  arousal  of  interest  over 
a  discovery  so  strange  that  its  importance  cannot 
yet  be  measured,  its  utility  be  even  prophesied, 
or  its  ultimate  effect  upon  long  established 
scientific  beliefs  be  even  vaguely  foretold. 

The  Rontgen  rays  are  certain  invisible  rays 
resembling,  in  many  respects,  rays  of  light,  which 
are  set  free  when  a  high-pressure  electric  current 
is  discharged  through  a  vacuum  tube.  A  vacuum 
tube  is  a  glass  tube  from  which  all  the  air,  down 
to  one-millionth  of  an  atmosphere,  has  been  ex- 
hausted after  the  insertion  of  a  platinum  wire 
in  either  end  of  the  tube  for  connection  with  the 
two  poles  of  a  battery  or  induction  coil.  When 
the  discharge  is  sent  through  the  tube,  there  pro- 
ceeds from  the  anode — that  is,  the  wire  which  is 
connected  with  the  positive  pole  of  the  battery — - 
certain  bands  of  light,  varying  in  colour  with 
the  colour  of  the  glass.  But  these  are  insignifi- 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

cant  in  comparison  with  the  brilliant  glow  which 
shoots  from  the  cathode,  or  negative  wire.  This 
glow  excites  brilliant  phosphorescence  in  glass 
and  many  substances,  and  these  '  'cathode  rays, " 
as  they  are  called,  were  observed  and  studied  by 
Hertz;  and  more  deeply  by  his  assistant,  Pro- 
fessor Lenard,  Lenard  having,  in  1894,  reported 
that  the  cathode  rays 'would  penetrate  thin  films 
of  aluminum,  wood,  and  other  substances,  and 
produce  photographic  results  beyond.  It  was 
left,  however,  for  Professor  Rontgen  to  discover 
that  during  the  discharge  quite  other  rays 
are  set  free,  which  differ  greatly  from  those  de- 
scribed by  Lenard  as  cathode  rays.  The  most 
marked  difference  between  the  two  is  the  fact 
that  Rontgen  rays  are  not  deflected  by  a  magnet, 
indicating  a  very  essential  difference,  while  their 
range  and  penetrative  power  are  incomparably 
greater.  In  fact,  all  those  qualities  which  have 
lent  a  sensational  character  to  the  discovery  of 
Ront  gen's  rays  were  mainly  absent  from  those 
of  Lenard,  to  the  end  that,  although  Rontgen 
has  not  been  working  in  an  entirely  new  field,  he 
has  by  common  accord  been  freely  granted  all 
the  honors  of  a  great  discovery. 

Exactly  what  kind  of  a  force  Professor  Ront- 
gen has  discovered  he  does  not  know.  As  will 
be  seen  below,  he  declines  to  call  it  a  new  kind 
of  light,  or  a  new  form  of  electricity.  He  nas 
given  it  the  name  of  the  X  rays.  Others  speak 
of  it  as  the  Rontgen  rays.  Thus  far  its  results 
only,  and  not  its  essence,  are  known.  In  the 
89 


Masterpieces   of  Science 

terminology  of  science  it  is  generally  called  ' '  a 
new  mode  of  motion, "  or,  in  other  words,  a  new 
force.  As  to  whether  it  is  or  not  actually  a  force 
new  to  science,  or  one  of  the  known  forces  mas- 
querading under  strange  conditions,  weighty 
authorities  are  already  arguing.  More  than  one 
eminent  scientist  has  already  affected  to  see  in  it 
a  key  to  the  great  mystery  of  the  law  of  gravity. 
All  who  have  expressed  themselves  in  print  have 
admitted,  with  more  or  less  frankness,  that,  in 
view  of  Rontgen's  discovery,  science  must  forth- 
with revise,  possibly  to  a  revolutionary  degree, 
the  long  accepted  theories  concerning  the  phe- 
nomena of  light  and  sound.  That  the  X  rays, 
in  their  mode  of  action,  combine  a  strange 
resemblance  to  both  sound  and  light  vibrations, 
and  are  destined  to  materially  affect,  if  they  do 
not  greatly  alter,  our  views  of  both  phenomena, 
is  already  certain;  and  beyond  this  is  the  opening 
into  a  new  and  unknown  field  of  physical  knowl- 
edge, concerning  which  speculation  is  already 
eager,  and  experimental  investigation  already  in 
hand,  in  London,  Paris,  Berlin,  and,  perhaps,  to 
a  greater  or  less  extent,  in  every  well-equipped 
physical  laboratory  in  Europe. 

This  is  the  present  scientific  aspect  of  the  dis- 
covery. But,  unlike  most  epoch-making  results 
from  laboratories,  this  discovery  is  one  which,  to 
a  very  unusual  degree,  is  within  the  grasp  of  the 
popular  and  non-technical  imagination.  Among 
the  other  kinds  of  matter  which  these  rays  pene- 
trate with  ease  is  human  flesh.  That  a  new 
90 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

photography  has  suddenly  arisen  which  can 
photograph  the  bones,  and,  before  long,  the  or- 
gans of  the  human  body ;  that  a  light  has  been 
found  which  can  penetrate,  so  as  to  make  a  pho- 
tographic record,  through  everything  from  a 
purse  or  a  pocket  to  the  walls  of  a  room  or  a 
house,  is  news  which  cannot  fail  to  startle  every- 
body. That  the  eye  of  the  physician  or  surgeon, 
long  baffled  by  the  skin,  and  vainly  seeking  to 
penetrate  the  unfortunate  darkness  of  the  human 
body,  is  now  to  be  supplemented  by  a  camera, 
making  all  the  parts  of  the  human  body  as 
visible,  in  a  way,  as  the  exterior,  appears  cer- 
tainly to  be  a  greater  blessing  to  humanity  than 
even  the  Listerian  antiseptic  system  of  surgery; 
and  its  benefits  must  inevitably  be  greater  than 
those  conferred  by  Lister,  great  as  the  latter 
have  been.  Already,  in  the  few  weeks  since 
Rontgen's  announcement,  the  results  of  surgical 
operations  under  the  new  system  are  growing 
voluminous.  In  Berlin,  not  only  new  bone  frac- 
tures are  being  immediately  photographed,  but 
joined  fractures,  as  well,  in  order  to  examine  the 
results  of  recent  surgical  work.  In  Vienna, 
imbedded  bullets  are  being  photographed,  in- 
stead of  being  probed  for,  and  extracted  with 
comparative  ease.  In  London,  a  wounded 
sailor,  completely  paralyzed,  whose  injury  was  a 
mystery,  has  been  saved  by  the  photographing 
of  an  object  imbedded  in  the  spine,  which,  upon 
extraction,  proved  to  be  a  small  knife-blade. 
Operations  for  malformations,  hitherto  obscure, 
91 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

but  now  clearly  revealed  by  the  new  photo- 
graphy, are  already  becoming  common,  and  are 
being  reported  from  all  directions.  Professor 
Czermark  of  Graz  has  photographed  the  living 
skull,  denuded  of  flesh  and  hair,  and  has  begun 
the  adaptation  of  the  new  photography  to  brain 
study.  The  relation  of  the  new  rays  to  thought 
rays  is  being  eagerly  discussed  in  what  may  be 
called  the  non-exact  circles  and  journals;  and  all 
that  numerous  group  of  inquirers  into  the  occult, 
the  believers  in  clairvoyance,  spiritualism, 
telepathy,  and  kindred  orders  of  alleged  phe- 
nomena, are  confident  of  finding  in  the  new  force 
long-sought  facts  in  proof  of  their  claims.  Pro- 
fessor Neusser  in  Vienna  has  photographed  gall- 
stones in  the  liver  of  one  patient  (the  stone  show- 
ing snow-white  in  the  negative) ,  and  a  stone  in 
the  bladder  of  another  patient.  His  results  so 
far  induce  him  to  announce  that  all  the  organs 
of  the  human  body  can,  and  will,  shortly,  be 
photographed.  Lannelongue  of  Paris  has  ex- 
hibited to  the  Academy  of  Science  photographs 
of  bones  showing  inherited  tuberculosis  which 
had  not  otherwise  revealed  itself.  Berlin  has 
already  formed  a  society  of  forty  for  the  immedi- 
ate prosecution  of  researches  into  both  the  char- 
acter of  the  new  force  and  its  physiological  possi- 
bilities. In  the  next  few  weeks  these  strange 
announcements  will  be  trebled  or  quadrupled, 
giving  the  best  evidence  from  all  quarters  of  the 
great  future  that  awaits  the  Rontgen  rays,  and 
the  startling  impetus  to  the  universal  search  for 
92 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

knowledge  that  has  come  at  the  close  of  the  nine- 
teenth century  from  the  modest  little  laboratory 
in  the  Pleicher  Ring  at  Wiirzburg. 

The  Physical  Institute,  Professor  Ront  gen's 
particular  domain,  is  a  modest  building  of  two 
stories  and  basement,  the  upper  story  constitut- 
ing his  private  residence,  and  the  remainder  of 
the  building  being  given  over  to  lecture  rooms, 
laboratories,  and  their  attendant  offices.  At  the 
door  I  was  met  by  an  old  serving-man  of  the 
idolatrous  order,  whose  pain  was  apparent  when 
I  asked  for  "Professor"  Rontgen,  and  he  gently 
corrected  me  with  "Herr  Doctor  Rontgen." 
As  it  was  evident,  however,  that  we  referred  to 
the  same  person,  he  conducted  me  along  a  wide, 
bare  hall,  running  the  length  of  the  building, 
with  blackboards  and  charts  on  the  walls.  At 
the  end  he  showed  me  into  a  small  room  on  the 
right.  This  contained  a  large  table  desk,  and  a 
small  table  by  the  window,  covered  by  photo- 
graphs, while  the  walls  held  rows  of  shelves 
laden  with  laboratory  and  other  records.  An  open 
door  led  into  a  somewhat  larger  room,  perhaps 
twenty  feet  by  fifteen,  and  I  found  myself  gazing 
into  a  laboratory  which  was  the  scene  of  the  dis- 
covery— a  laboratory  which,  though  in  all  ways 
modest,  is  destined  to  be  enduringly  historical. 

There  was  a  wide  table  shelf  running  along 
the  farther  side,  in  front  of  the  two  windows, 
which  were  high,  and  gave  plenty  of  light.  In 
the  centre  was  a  stove;  on  the  left,  a  small  cabinet 
whose  shelves  held  the  small  objects  which  the 
93 


Masterpieces  of   Science 

professor  had  been  using.  There  was  a  table  in 
the  left-hand  corner;  and  another  small  table — 
the  one  on  which  living  bones  were  first  photo- 
graphed— was  near  the  stove,  and  a  Ruhmkorff 
coil  was  on  the  right.  The  lesson  of  the  labora- 
tory was  eloquent.  Compared,  for  instance, 
with  the  elaborate,  expensive,  and  complete 
apparatus  of,  say,  the  University  of  London,  or 
of  any  of  the  great  American  universities,  it  was 
bare  and  unassuming  to  a  degree.  It  mutely 
said  that  in  the  great  march  of  science  it  is  the 
genius  of  man,  and  not  the  perfection  of  ap- 
pliances, that  breaks  new  ground  in  the  great 
territory  of  the  unknown.  It  also  caused  one 
to  wonder  at  and  endeavour  to  imagine  the  great 
things  which  are  to  be  done  through  elaborate 
appliances  with  the  Rontgen  rays — a  field  in 
which  the  United  States,  with  its  foremost  genius 
in  invention,  will  very  possibly,  if  not  probably, 
take  the  lead — when  the  discoverer  himself  had 
done  so  much  with  so  little.  Already,  in  a  few 
weeks,  a  skilled  London  operator,  Mr.  A.  A.  C. 
Swinton,  has  reduced  the  necessary  time  of  ex- 
posure for  Rontgen  photographs  from  fifteen 
minutes  to  four.  He  .used,  however,  a  Tesla  oil 
coil,  discharged  by  twelve  half-gallon  Ley  den 
jars,  with  an  alternating  current  of  twenty  thou- 
sand volts'  pressure.  Here  were  no  oil  coils, 
Ley  den  jars,  or  specially  elaborate  and  expensive 
machines.  There  were  only  a  Ruhmkorff  coil 
and  Crookes  (vacuum)  tube  and  the  man  him- 
self. 

94 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

Professor  Rontgen  entered  hurriedly,  some- 
thing like  an  amiable  gust  of  wind.  He  is  a  tall, 
slender,  and  loose-limbed  man,  whose  whole  ap- 
pearance bespeaks  enthusiasm  and  energy.  He 
wore  a  dark  blue  sack  suit,  and  his  long,  dark 
hair  stood  straight  up  from  his  forehead,  as  if 
he  were  permanently  electrified  by  his  own  en- 
thusiasm. His  voice  is  full  and  deep,  he  speaks 
rapidly,  and,  altogether,  he  seems  clearly  a  man 
who,  once  upon  the  track  of  a  mystery  which 
appealed  to  him,  would  pursue  it  with  unremit- 
ting vigor.  His  eyes  are  kind,  quick,  and  pene- 
trating; and  there  is  no  doubt  that  he  much  pre- 
fers gazing  at  a  Crookes  tube  to  beholding  a  visi- 
tor, visitors  at  present  robbing  him  of  much 
valued  time.  The  meeting  was  by  appointment, 
however,  and  his  greeting  was  cordial  and  hearty. 
In  addition  to  his  own  language  he  speaks  French 
well  and  English  scientifically,  which  is  different 
from  speaking  it  popularly.  These  three  tongues 
being  more  or  less  within  the  equipment  of  his 
visitor,  the  conversation  proceeded  on  an  inter- 
national or  polyglot  basis,  so  to  speak,  varying 
at  necessity's  demand. 

It  transpired  in  the  course  of  inquiry,  that  the 
professor  is  a  married  man  and  fifty  years  of  age, 
though  his  eyes  have  the  enthusiasm  of  twenty- 
five.  He  was  born  near  Zurich,  and  educated 
there,  and  completed  his  studies  and  took  his 
degree  at  Utrecht.  He  has  been  at  Wiirzburg 
about  seven  years,  and  had  made  no  discoveries 
which  he  considered  of  great  importance  prior 
95 


Masterpieces  of  Science 

to  the  one  under  consideration.  These  details 
were  given  under  good-natured  protest,  he  failing 
to  understand  why  his  personality  should  interest 
the  public.  He  declined  to  admire  himself  or  his 
results  in  any  degree,  and  laughed  at  the  idea  of 
being  famous.  The  professor  is  too  deeply  in- 
terested in  science  to  waste  any  time  in  thinking 
about  himself.  His  emperor  had  feasted,  flat- 
tered, and  decorated  him,  and  he  was  loyally 
grateful.  It  was  evident,  however,  that  fame 
and  applause  had  small  attractions  for  him,  com- 
pared to  the  mysteries  still  hidden  in  the  vacuum 
tubes  of  the  other  room. 

"Now,  then,"  said  he,  smiling,  and  with  some 
impatience,  when  the  preliminary  questions  at 
which  he  chafed  were  over,  "you  have  come  to 
see  the  invisible  rays." 

"  Is  the  invisible  visible  ? " 

"Not  to  the  eye;  but  its  results  are.  Come  in 
here." 

He  led  the  way  to  the  other  square  room  men- 
tioned, and  indicated  the  induction  coil  with 
which  his  researches  were  made,  an  ordinary 
Ruhmkorff  coil,  with  a  spark  of  from  four  to  six 
inches,  charged  by  a  current  of  twenty  amperes. 
Two  wires  led  from  the  coil,  through  an  open 
door,  into  a  smaller  room  on  the  right.  In  this 
room  was  a  small  table  carrying  a  Crookes  tube 
connected  with  the  coil.  The  most  striking 
object  irt  the  room,  however,  was  a  huge  and 
mysterious  tin  box  about  seven  feet  high  and 
four  feet  square.  It  stood  on  end,  like  a  huge 
96 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

packing  case,  its  side  being  perhaps  five  inches 
from  the  Crookes  tube. 

The  professor  explained  the  mystery  of  the  tin 
box,  to  the  effect  that  it  was  a  device  of  his  own 
for  obtaining  a  portable  dark-room.  When  he 
began  his  investigations  he  used  the  whole  room, 
as  was  shown  by  the  heavy  blinds  and  curtains  so 
arranged  as  to  exclude  the  entrance  of  all  inter- 
fering light  from  the  windows.  In  the  side  of  the 
tin  box,  at  the  point  immediately  against  the 
tube,  was  a  circular  sheet  of  aluminum  one 
millimetre  in  thickness,  and  perhaps  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter,  soldered  to  the  surrounding 
tin.  To  study  his  rays  the  professor  had  only 
to  turn  on  the  current,  enter  the  box,  close  the 
door,  and  in  perfect  darkness  inspect  only  such 
light  or  light  effects  as  he  had  a  right  to  consider 
his  own,  hiding  his  light,  in  fact,  not  under  the 
Biblical  bushel,  but  in  a  more  commodious  box. 

"  Step  inside, "  said  he,  opening  the  door,  which 
was  on  the  side  of  the  box  farthest  from  the  tube. 
I  immediately  did  so,  not  altogether  certain 
whether  my  skeleton  was  to  be  photographed 
for  general  inspection,  or  my  secret  thoughts 
held  up  to  light  on  a  glass  plate.  "You  will  find 
a  sheet  of  barium  paper  on  the  shelf, "  he  added, 
and  then  went  away  to  the  coil.  The  door  was 
closed,  and  the  interior  of  the  box  became  black 
darkness.  The  first  thing  I  found  was  a  wooden 
stool,  on  which  I  resolved  to  sit.  Then  I  found 
the  shelf  on  the  side  next  the  tube,  and  then  the 
sheet  of  paper  prepared  with  barium  platino- 
97 


Masterpieces    of   Science 

cyanide.  I  was.  thus  being  shown  the  first  phe- 
nomenon which  attracted  the  discoverer's  at- 
tention and  led  to  his  discovery,  namely,  the 
passage  of  rays,  themselves  wholly  invisible, 
whose  presence  was  only  indicated  by  the  effect 
they  produced  on  a  piece  of  sensitized  photo- 
graphic paper. 

A  moment  later,  the  black  darkness  was  pene- 
trated by  the  rapid  snapping  sound  of  the  high- 
pressure  current  in  action,  and  I  knew  that  the 
tube  outside  was  glowing.  I  held  the  sheet  ver- 
tically on  the  shelf,  perhaps  four  inches  from  the 
plate.  There  was  no  change,  however,  and 
nothing  was  visible. 

"Do  you  see  anything?"  he  called. 

"No." 

"The  tension  is  not  high  enough;  "  and  he  pro- 
ceeded to  increase  the  pressure  by  operating  an 
apparatus  of  mercury  in  long  vertical  tubes  acted 
upon  automatically  by  a  weight  lever  which 
stood  near  the  coil.  In  a  few  moments  the 
sound  of  the  discharge  again  began,  and  then 
I  made  my  first  acquaintance  with  the  Rontgen 
rays. 

The  moment  the  current  passed,  the  paper 
began  to  glow.  A  yellowish  green  light  spread 
all  over  its  surface  in  clouds,  waves  and  flashes. 
The  yellow- green  luminescence,  all  the  stranger 
and  stronger  in  the  darkness,  trembled,  wavered, 
and  floated  over  the  paper,  in  rhythm  with  the 
snapping  of  the  discharge.  Through  the  metal 
plate,  the  paper,  myself,  and  the  tin  box,  the 
98 


Photographing   the    Unseen 

invisible  rays  were  flying,  with  an  effect  strange, 
interesting     and     uncanny.      The    metal    plate 
seemed  to  offer  no  appreciable  resistance  to  the 
flying  force,  and  the  light  was  as  rich  and  full  as 
if  nothing  lay  between  the  paper  and  the  tube. 
"Put  the  book  up,"  said  the  professor. 
I  felt  upon  the  shelf,  in  the  darkness,  a  heavy 
book,  two  inches  in  thickness,  and  placed  this 
against  the  plate.     It  made  no  difference.     The 
rays  flew  through  the  metal  and  the  book  as  if 
neither  had  been  there,  and  the  waves  of  light, 
rolling   cloud-like   over   the    paper,    showed   no 
change  in  brightness.     It  was  a  clear,  material 
illustration  of  the  ease  with  which  paper  and 
wood   are   penetrated.     And   then   I   laid   book 
and  paper  down,  and  put  my  eyes  against  the 
rays.     All  was  blackness,  and  I  neither  saw  nor 
felt  anything.     The  discharge  was  in  full  force, 
and  the  rays  were  flying  through  my  head,  and, 
for  all  I  knew,  through  the  side  of  the  box  be- 
hind me.     But  they  were  invisible  and  impalpa- 
ble.    They  gave  no  sensation  whatever.     What- 
ever the  mysterious  rays  may  be,  they  are  not 
to  be  seen,  and  are  to  be  judged  only  by  their 
works. 

I  was  loath  to  leave  this  historical  tin  box,  but 
time  pressed.  I  thanked  the  professor,  who  was 
happy  in  the  reality  of  his  discovery  and  the 
music  of  his  sparks.  Then  I  said:  "Where  did 
you  first  photograph  living  bones?" 

"Here,"  he  said,  leading  the  way  into  the 
room  where  the  coil  stood.  He  pointed  to  a 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

table  on  which  was  another — the  latter  a  small 
short-legged  wooden  one  with  more  the  shape 
and  size  of  a  wooden  seat.  It  was  two  feet 
square  and  painted  coal  black.  I  viewed  it  with 
interest.  I  would  have  bought  it,  for  the  little 
table  on  which  light  was  first  sent  through  the 
human  body  will  some  day  be  a  great  historical 
curiosity;  but  it  was  not  for  sale.  A  photograph 
of  it  would  have  been  a  consolation,  but  for 
several  reasons  one  was  not  to  be  "had  at  present. 
However,  the  historical  table  was  there,  and 
was  duly  inspected. 

11  How  did  you  take  the  first  hand  photograph  ?" 
I  asked. 

The  professor  went  over  to  a  shelf  by  the  win- 
dow, where  lay  a  number  of  prepared  glass  plates, 
closely  wrapped  in  black  paper.  He  put  a 
Crookes  tube  underneath  the  table,  a  few  inches 
from  the  under  side  of  its  top.  Then  he  laid  his 
hand  flat  on  the  top  of  the  table,  and  placed  the 
glass  plate  loosely  on  his  hand. 

"You  ought  to  have  your  portrait  painted  in 
that  attitude,"  I  suggested. 

"  No,  that  is  nonsense,  "  said  he,  smiling. 

"Or  be  photographed."  This  suggestion  was 
made  with  a  deeply  hidden  purpose. 

The  rays  from  the  Rontgen  eyes  instantly 
penetrated  the  deeply  hidden  purpose.  "Oh, 
no,"  said  he;  "I  can't  let  you  make  pictures  of 
me.  I  am  too  busy.  "  Clearly  the  professor  was 
entirely  too  modest  to  gratify  the  wishes  of  the 
curious  world. 

100 


Photographing  the    Unseen 

"Now,  Professor,"  said  I,  "will  you  tell  me 
the  history  of  the  discovery  ? " 

"There  is  no  history,  "  he  said.  "  I  have  been 
for  a  long  time  interested  in  the  problem  of  the 
cathode  rays  from  a  vacuum  tube  as  studied  by 
Hertz  and  Lenard.  I  had  followed  their  and 
other  researches  with  great  interest,  and  deter- 
mined, as  soon  as  I  had  the  time,  to  make  some 
researches  of  my  own.  This  time  I  found  at  the 
close  of  last  October.  I  had  been  at  work  for 
some  days  when  I  discovered  something  new. ' ' 

"What  was  the  date?" 

"The  eighth  of  November.  " 

"And  what  was  the  discovery?" 

"I  was  working  with  a  Crookes  tube  covered 
by  a  shield  of  black  cardboard.  A  piece  of 
barium  platino-cyanide  paper  lay  on  the  bench 
there.  I  had  been  passing  a  current  through 
the  tube,  and  I  noticed  a  peculiar  black  line 
across  the  paper. " 

"What  of  that?" 

"The  effect  was  one  which  could  only  be  pro- 
duced, in  ordinary  parlance,  by  the  passage  of 
light.  No  light  could  come  from  the  tube,  be- 
cause the  shield  which  covered  it  was  impervious 
to  any  light  known,  even  that  of  the  electric  arc.  " 

"And  what  did  you  think ? " 

"I  did  not  think;  I  investigated.  I  assumed 
that  the  effect  must  have  come  from  the  tube, 
since  its  character  indicated  that  it  could  come 
from  nowhere  else.  I  tested  it.  In  a  few  min- 
utes' there  was  no  doubt  about  it.  Rays  were 
101 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

coming  from  the  tube  which  had  a  luminescent 
effect  upon  the  paper.  I  tried  it  successfully  at 
greater  and  greater  distances,  even  at  two 
metres.  It  seemed  at  first  a  new  kind  of  invisi- 
ble light.  It  was  clearly  something  new,  some- 
thing unrecorded." 

"Is  it  light?" 

"No." 

"Is  it  electricity?" 

"  Not  in  any  known  form.  " 

"What  is  it?" 

"  I  don't  know.  " 

And  the  discoverer  of  the  X  rays  thus  stated 
as  calmly  his  ignorance  of  their  essence  as  has 
everybody  else  who  has  written  on  the  phe- 
nomena thus  far. 

"Having  discovered  the  existence  of  a  new 
kind  of  rays,  I  of  course  began  to  investigate 
what  they  would  do."  He  took  up  a  series  of 
cabinet-sized  photographs.  "It  soon  appeared 
from  tests  that  the  rays  had  penetrative  powers 
to  a  degree  hitherto  unknown.  They  penetrated 
paper,  wood,  and  cloth  with  ease;  and  the  thick- 
ness of  the  substance  made  no  perceptible  differ- 
ence, within  reasonable  limits."  He  showed 
photographs  of  a  box  of  laboratory  weights  of 
platinum,  aluminum,  and  brass,  they  and  the 
brass  hinges  all  having  been  photographed  from 
a  closed  box,  without  any  indication  of  the  box. 
Also  a  photograph  of  a  coil  of  fine  wire,  wound 
on  a  wooden  spool,  the  wire  having  been  photo- 
graphed, and  the  wood  omitted.  "The  rays," 
102 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

he  continued,  "passed  through  all  the  metals 
tested,  with  a  facility  varying,  roughly  speaking, 
with  the  density  of  the  metal.  These  phe- 
nomena I  have  disctissed  carefully  in  my  report 
to  the  Wiirzburg  society,  and  you  will  find  all  the 
technical  results  therein  stated."  He  showed  a 
photograph  of  a  small  sheet  of  zinc.  This  was 
composed  of  smaller  plates  soldered  laterally  with 
solders  of  different  metallic  proportions.  The 
differing  lines  of  shadow,  caused  by  the  difference 
in  the  solders,  were  visible  evidence  that  a  new 
means  of  detecting  flaws  and  chemical  variations 
in  metals  had  been  found.  A  photograph  of  a 
compass  showed  the  needle  and  dial  taken  through 
the  closed  brass  cover.  The  markings  of  the 
dial  were  in  red  metallic  paint,  and  thus  inter- 
fered with  the  rays,  and  were  reproduced. 
"Since  the  rays  had  this  great  penetrative  power, 
it  seemed  natural  that  they  should  penetrate 
flesh,  and  so  it  proved  in  photographing  the 
hand,  as  I  showed  you." 

A  detailed  discussion  of  the  characteristics  of 
his  rays  the  professor  considered  unprofitable 
and  unnecessary.  He  believes,  though,  that 
these  mysterious  radiations  are  not  light,  because 
their  behaviour  is  essentially  different  from  that 
of  light  rays,  even  those  light  rays  which  are 
themselves  invisible.  The  Rontgen  rays  cannot 
be  reflected  by  reflecting  surfaces,  concentrated 
by  lenses,  or  refracted  or  diffracted.  They  pro- 
duce photographic  action  on  a  sensitive  film,  but 
their  action  is  weak  as  yet,  and  herein  lies  the 
103 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

first  important  field  of  their  development.  The 
professor's  exposures  were  comparatively  long — • 
an  average  of  fifteen  minutes  in  easily  penetrable 
media-,  and  half  an  hour  or  more  in  photograph- 
ing the  bones  of  the  hand.  Concerning  vacuum 
tubes,  he  said  that  he  preferred  the  Hittorf, 
because  it  had  the  most  perfect  vacuum,  the 
highest  degree  of  air  exhaustion  being  the  con- 
summation most  desirable.  In  answer  to  a 
question,  "What  of  the  future  ? "  he  said: 

"I  am  not  a  prophet,  and  I  am  opposed  to 
prophesying.  I  am  pursuing  my  investigations, 
and  as  fast  as  my  results  are  verified  I  shall  make 
them  public. " 

"  Do  you  think  the  rays  can  be  so  modified  as 
to  photograph  the  organs  of  the  human  body  ? ' ' 

In  answer  he  took  up  the  photograph  of  the 
box  of  weights.  "Here  are  already  modifica- 
tions," he  said,  indicating  the  various  degrees  of 
shadow  produced  by  the  aluminum,  platinum, 
and  brass  weights,  the  brass  hinges,  and  even  the 
metallic  stamped  lettering  on  the  cover  of  the 
box,  which  was  faintly  perceptible. 

"  But  Professor  Neusser  has  already  announced 
that  the  photographing  of  the  various  organs  is 
possible. " 

"We  shall  see  what  we  shall  see,"  he  said. 
"We  have  the  start  now;  the  development  will 
follow  in  time. " 

"You  know  the  apparatus  for  introducing  the 
electric  light  into  the  stomach?" 

"Yes." 

104 


Photographing  the   Unseen 

"Do  you  think  that  this  electric  light  will 
become  a  vacuum  tube  for  photographing, 
from  the  stomach,  any  part  of  the  abdomen  or 
thorax?" 

The  idea  of  swallowing  a  Crookes  tube,  and 
sending  a  high  frequency  current  down  into  one's 
stomach,  seemed  to  him  exceedingly  funny. 
"When  I  have  done  it',  I  will  tell  you,"  he  said, 
smiling,  resolute  in  abiding  by  results. 

"There  is  much  to  do,  and  I  am  busy,  very 
busy,"  he  said  in  conclusion.  He  extended  his 
hand  in  farewell,  his  eyes  already  wandering 
toward  his  work  in  the  inside  room.  And  his 
visitor  promptly  left  him;  the  words,  "I  am 
busy,"  said  in  all  sincerity,  seeming  to  de- 
scribe in  a  single  phrase  the  essence  of  his 
character  and  the  watchword  of  a  very  unusual 
man. 

Returning  by  way  of  Berlin,  I  called  upon 
Herr  Spies  of  the  Urania,  whose  photographs 
after  the  Rontgen  method  were  the  first  made 
public,  and  have  been  the  best  seen  thus  far.  In 
speaking  of  the  discovery  he  said: 

"  I  applied  it,  as  soon  as  the  penetration  of 
flesh  was  apparent,  to  the  photograph  of  a  man's 
hand.  Something  in  it  had  pained  him  for 
years,  and  the  photograph  at  once  exhibited  a 
small  foreign  object,  as  you  can  see;  "  and  he 
exhibited  a  copy  of  the  photograph  in  question. 
"The  speck  there  is  a  small  piece  of  glass,  which 
was  immediately  extracted,  and  which,  in  all 
probability,  would  have  otherwise  remained  in 
105 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

the  man's  hand  to  the  end  of  his  days."  All 
of  which  indicates  that  the  needle  which 
has  pursued  its  travels  in  so  many  persons, 
through  so  many  years,  will  be  suppressed  by 
the  camera. 

"My  next  object  is  to  photograph  the  bones 
of  the  entire  leg,"  continued  Herr  Spies.  "I 
anticipate  no  difficulty,  though  it  requires  some 
thought  in  manipulation." 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  Rontgen  rays  and  their 
marvellous  practical  possibilities  are  still  in  their 
infancy.  The  first  successful  modification  of  the 
action  of  the  rays  so  that  the  varying  densities  of 
bodily  organs  will  enable  them  to  be  photo- 
graphed will  bring  all  such  morbid  growths  as  tu- 
mours and  cancers  into  the  photographic  field,  to 
say  nothing  of  vital  organs  which  may  be  ab- 
normally developed  or  degenerate.  How  much 
this  means  to  medical  and  surgical  practice  it  re- 
quires little  imagination  to  conceive.  Diagnosis, 
long  a  painfully  uncertain  science,  has  received  an 
unexpected  and  wonderful  assistant;  and  how 
greatly  the  world  will  benefit  thereby,  how  much 
pain  will  be  saved,  only  the  future  can  determine. 
In  science  a  new  door  has  been  opened  where  none 
was  known  to  exist,  and  a  side-light  on  phe- 
nomena has  appeared,  of  which  the  results  may 
prove  as  penetrating  and  astonishing  as  the 
Rontgen  rays  themselves.  The  most  agreeable 
feature  of  the  discovery  is  the  opportunity  it 
gives  for  other  hands  to  help;  and  the  work  of 
these  hands  will  add  many  new  words  to  the 
106 


Photographing  the    Unseen 

dictionaries,  many  new  facts  to  science,  and,  in 
the  years  long  ahead  of  us,  fill  many  more  vol- 
umes than  there  are  paragraphs  in  this  brief  and 
imperfect  account. 


107 


THE  WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH 
GEORGE    ILES 

[From  "Flame,  Electricity  and  the  Camera,"  copyright 
by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York.] 

IN  a  series  of  experiments  interesting  enough 
but  barren  of  utility,  the  water  of  a  canal,  river, 
or  bay  has  often  served  as  a  conductor  for  the 
telegraph.  Among  the  electricians  who  have 
thus  impressed  water  into  their  service  was 
Professor  Morse.  In  1842  he  sent  a  few  signals 
across  the  channel  from  Castle  Garden,  New 
York,  to  Governor's  Island,  a  distance  of  a  mile. 
With  much  better  results,  he  sent  messages, 
later  in  the  same  year,  from  one  side  of  the  canal 
at  Washington  to  the  other,  a  distance  of  eighty 
feet,  employing  large  copper  plates  at  each  ter- 
minal. The  enormous  current  required  to  over- 
come the  resistance  of  water  has  barred  this 
method  from  practical  adoption. 

We  pass,  therefore,  to  electrical  communica- 
tion as  effected  by  induction — the  influence  which 
one  conductor  exerts  on  another  through  an  in- 
tervening insulator.  At  the  outset  we  shall  do 
well  to  bear  in  mind  that  magnetic  phenomena, 
which  are  so  closely  akin  to  electrical,  are  always 
inductive.  To  observe  a  common  example  of 
magnetic  induction,  we  have  only  to  move  a 
horseshoe  magnet  in  the  vicinity  of  a  compass 
109 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

needle,  which  will  instantly  sway  about  as  if 
blown  hither  and  thither  by  a  sharp  draught  of 
air.  This  action  takes  place  if  a  slate,  a  pane  of 
glass,  or  a  shingle  is  interposed  between  the 
needle  and  its  perturber.  There  is  no  known 
insulator  for  magnetism,  and  an  induction  of  this 
kind  exerts  itself  perceptibly  for  many  yards 
when  large  masses  of  iron  are  polarised,  so  that 
the  derangement  of  compasses  at  sea  from  moving 
iron  objects  aboard  ship,  or  from  ferric  ores 
underlying  a  sea-coast,  is  a  constant  peril  to  the 
mariner. 

Electrical  conductors  behave  much  like  mag- 
netic masses.  A  current  conveyed  by  a  .con- 
ductor induces  a  counter-current  in  all  surround- 
ing bodies,  and  in  a  degree  proportioned  to  their 
conductive  power.  This  effect  is,  of  course, 
greatest  upon  the  bodies  nearest  at  hand,  and  we 
have  already  remarked  its  serious  retarding 
effect  in  ocean  telegraphy.  When  the  original 
current  is  of  high  intensity,  it  can  induce  a  per- 
ceptible current  in  another  wire  at  a  distance  of 
several  miles.  In  1842  Henry  remarked  that 
electric  waves  had  this  quality,  but  in  that  early 
day  of  electrical  interpretation  the  full  signifi- 
cance of  the  fact  eluded  him.  In  the  top  room 
of  his  house  he  produced  a  spark  an  inch  long, 
which  induced  currents  in  wires  stretched  in 
his  cellar,  through  two  thick  floors  and  two  rooms 
which  came  between.  Induction  of  this  sort 
causes  the  annoyance,  familiar  in  single  tele- 
phonic circuits,  of  being  obliged  to  overhear 
110 


The  Wireless  Telegraph 

other  subscribers,  whose  wires  are  often  far  away 
from  our  own. 

The  first  practical  use  of  induced  currents  in 
telegraphy  was  when  Mr.  Edison,  in  1885,  enabled 
the  trains  on  a  line  of  the  Staten  Island  Railroad 
to  be  kept  in  constant  communication  with  a 
telegraphic  wire,  suspended  in  the  ordinary  way 
beside  the  track.  The  roof  of  a  car  was  of  in- 
sulated metal,  and  every  tap  of  an  operator's 
key  within  the  walls  electrified  the  roof  just  long 
enough  to  induce  a  brief  pulse  through  the  tele- 
graphic circuit.  In  sending  a  message  to  the 
car  this  wire  was,  moment  by  moment,  electrified, 
inducing  a  response  first  in  the  car  roof,  and  next 
in  the  "  sounder  "  beneath  it.  This  remarkable 
apparatus,  afterward  used  on  the  Lehigh  Valley 
Railroad,  was  discontinued  from  lack  of  com- 
mercial support,  although  it  would  seem  to  be 
advantageous  to  maintain  such  a  service  on  other 
than  commercial  grounds.  In  case  of  chance 
obstructions  on  the  track,  or  other  peril,  to  be 
able  to  communicate  at  any  moment  with  a 
train  as  it  speeds  along  might  mean  safety  in- 
stead of  disaster.  The  chief  item  in  the  cost  of 
this  system  is  the  large  outlay  for  a  special  tele 
graphic  wire. 

The  next  electrician  to  employ  induced  cur- 
rents in  telegraphy  was  Mr.  (now  Sir)  William 
H.  Preece,  the  engineer  then  at  the  head  of  the 
British  telegraph  system.  Let  one  example  of 
his  work  be  cited.  In  1896  a  cable  was  laid  be- 
tween Lavernock,  near  Cardiff,  on  the  Bristol 
111 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

Channel,  and  Flat  Holme,  an  island  three  and  a 
third  miles  off.  As  the  channel  at  this  point  is 
a  much-frequented  route  and  anchor  ground, 
the  cable  was  broken  again  and  again.  As  a 
substitute  for  it  Mr.  Preece,  in  1898,  strung  wires 
along  the  opposite  shores,  and  found  that  an 
electric  pulse  sent  through  one  wire  instantly 
made  itself  heard  in  a  telephone  connected  with 
the  other.  It  would  seem  that  in  this  etheric 
form  of  telegraphy  the  two  opposite  lines  of 
wire  must  be  each  as  long  as  the  distance  which 
separates  them;  therefore,  to  communicate  across 
the  English  Channel  from  Dover  to  Calais  would 
require  a  line  along  each  coast  at  least  twenty 
miles  in  length.  Where  such  lines  exist  for 
ordinary  telegraphy,  they  might  easily  lend  them- 
selves to  the  Preece  system  of  signalling  in  case 
a  submarine  cable  were  to  part. 

Marconi,  adopting  electrostatic  instead  of 
electromagnetic  waves,  has  won  striking  results. 
Let  us  note  the  chief  of  his  forerunners,  as  they 
prepared  the  way  for  him.  In  1864  Maxwell 
observed  that  electricity  and  light  have  the  same 
velocity,  186,400  miles  a  second,  and  he  formu- 
lated the  theory  that  electricity  propagates  itself 
in  waves  which  differ  from  those  of  light  only 
in  being  longer.  This  was  proved  to  be  true  by 
Hertz,  who  in  1888  showed  that  where  alternat- 
ing currents  of  very  high  frequency  were  set  up 
in  an  open  circuit,  the  energy  might  be  conveyed 
entirely  away  from  the  circuit  into  the  surround- 
ing space  as  electric  waves.  His  detector  was 
112 


The   Wireless   Telegraph 

a  nearly  closed  circle  of  wire,  the  ends  being 
soldered  to  metal  balls  almost  in  contact.  With 
this  simple  apparatus  he  demonstrated  that 
electric  waves  move  with  the  speed  of  light,  and 
that  they  can  be  reflected  and  refracted  pre- 
cisely as  if  they  formed  a  visible  beam.  At  a 
certain  intensity  of  strain  the  air  insulation  broke 
down,  and  the  air  became  a  conductor.  This 
phenomenon  of  passing  quite  suddenly  from  a 
non-conductive  to  a  conductive  state  is,  as  we 
shall  duly  see,  also  to  be  noted  when  air  or  other 
gases  are  exposed  to  the  X  ray. 

Now  for  the  effect  of  electric  waves  such  as 
Hertz  produced,  when  they  impinge  upon  sub- 
stances reduced  to  powder  or  filings.  Conductors, 
such  as  the  metals,  are  of  inestimable  service  to 
the  electrician ;  of  equal  value  are  non-conductors, 
such  as  glass  and  gutta-percha,  as  they  strictly 
fence  in  an  electric  stream.  A  third  and  re- 
markable vista  opens  to  experiment  when  it  deals 
with  substances  which,  in  their  normal  state,  are 
non-conductive,  but  which,  agitated  by  an  elec- 
tric wave,  instantly  become  conductive  in  a  high 
degree.  As  long  ago  as  1866  Mr.  S.  A.  Varley 
noticed  that  black  lead,  reduced  to  a  loose  dust, 
effectually  intercepted  a  current  from  fifty 
Daniell  cells,  although  the  battery  poles  were 
very  near  each  other.  When  he  increased  the 
electric  tension  four-  to  sixfold,  the  black-lead 
particles  at  once  compacted  themselves  so  as  to 
form  a  bridge  of  excellent  conductivity.  On  this 
principle  he  invented  a  lightning-protector  for 
113 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

electrical  instruments,  the  incoming  flash  causing 
a  tiny  heap  of  carbon  dust  to  provide  it  with  a 
path  through  which  it  could  safely  pass  to  the 
earth.  Professor  Temistocle  Calzecchi  Onesti  of 
Fermo,  in  1885,  in  an  independent  series  of  re- 
searches, discovered  that  a  mass  of  powdered 
copper  is  a  non-conductor  until  an  electric  wave 
beats  upon  it;  then,  in  an  instant,  the  mass  re- 
solves itself  into  a  conductor  almost  as  efficient 
as  if  it  were  a  stout,  unbroken  wire.  Professor 
Edouard  Branly  of  Paris,  in  1891,  on  this  princi- 
ple devised  a  coherer,  which  passed  from  resist- 
ance to  invitation  when  subjected  to  an  electric 
impulse  from  afar.  He  enhanced  the  value  of 
his  device  by  the  vital  discovery  that  the  con- 
ductivity bestowed  upon  filings  by  electric  dis- 
charges could  be  destroyed  by  simply  shaking 
or  tapping  them  apart. 

In  a  homely  way  the  principle  of  the  coherer  is 
often  illustrated  in  ordinary  telegraphic  practice. 
An  operator  notices  that  his  instrument  is  not 
working  well,  and  he  suspects  that  at  some  point 
in  his  circuit  there  is  a  defective  contact.  A  little 
dirt,  or  oxide,  or  dampness,  has  come  in  between 
two  metallic  surfaces;  to  be  sure,  they  still  touch 
each  other,  but  not  in  the  firm  and  perfect  way 
demanded  for  his  work.  Accordingly  he  sends  a 
powerful  current  abruptly  into  the  line,  which 
clears  its  path  thoroughly,  brushes  aside  dirt, 
oxide,  or  moisture,  and  the  circuit  once  more  is  as 
it  should  be.  In  all  likelihood,  the  coherer  is 
acted  upon  in  the  same  way.  Among  the  phy- 
114. 


The   Wireless   Telegraph 

sicists  who  studied  it  in  its  original  form  was  Dr. 
Oliver  J.  Lodge.  He  improved  it  so  much  that, 
in  1894,  at  the  Royal  Institution  in  London,  he 
was  able  to  show  it  as  an  electric  eye  that  regis- 
tered the  impact  of  invisible  rays  at  a  distance  of 
more  than  forty  yards.  He  made  bold  to  say 
that  this  distance  might  be  raised  to  half  a  mile. 
As  early  as  1879  Professor  D.  E.  Hughes  began 
a  series  of  experiments  in  wireless  telegraphy, 
on  much  the  lines  which  in  other  hands  have  now 
reached  commercial  as  well  as  scientific  success. 
Professor  Hughes  was  the  inventor  of  the  micro- 
phone, and  that  instrument,  he  declared,  affords 
an  unrivalled  means  of  receiving  wireless  mes- 
sages, since  it  requires  no  tapping  to  restore  its 
non-conductivity.  In  his  researches  this  in- 
vestigator was  convinced  that  his  signals  were 
propagated,  not  by  electromagnetic  induction, 
but  by  aerial  electric  waves  spreading  out  from 
an  electric  spark,  Early  in  1880  he  showed  his 
apparatus  to  Professor  Stokes,  who  observed  its 
operation  carefully.  His  dictum  was  that  he 
saw  nothing  which  could  not  be  explained  by 
known  electromagnetic  effects.  This  erroneous 
judgment  so  discouraged  Professor  Hughes  that 
he  desisted  from  following  up  his  experiments, 
and  thus,  in  all  probability,  the  birth  of  the 
wireless  telegraph  was  for  several  years  delayed.* 

*" History  of  the  Wireless  Telegraph,"  by  J.  J.  Fahie. 
Edinburgh  and  London,  William  Blackwood  &  Sons;  New 
York,  Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  1899.  This  work  is  full  of  interest- 
ing detail,  well  illustrated. 

115 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

The  coherer,  as  improved  by  Marconi,  is  a  glass 
tube  about  one  and  one-half  inches  long  and 
about  one-twelfth  of  an  inch  in  internal  diameter. 
The  electrodes  are  inserted  in  this  tube  so  as 
almost  to  touch;  between  them  is  about  one- 
thirtieth  of  an  inch  filled  with  a  pinch  of  the 
responsive  mixture  which  forms  the  pivot  of 
the  whole  contrivance.  This  mixture  is  90  per 
cent,  nickel  filings,  10  per  cent,  hard  silver  filings, 
and  a  mere  trace  of  mercury;  the  tube  is  ex- 


Fig.  71. — Marconi  coherer,  enlarged  view 

hausted  of  air  to  within  one  ten-thousandth  part 
(Fig.  7 1) .  How  does  this  trifle  of  metallic  dust 
manage  loudly  to  utter  its  signals  through  a 
telegraphic  sounder,  or  forcibly  indent  them 
upon  a  moving  strip  of  paper?  Not  directly, 
but  indirectly,  as  the  very  last  refinement  of  ini- 
tiation. Let  us  imagine  an  ordinary  telegraphic 
battery  strong  enough  loudly  to  tick  out  a  mes- 
sage. Be  it  ever  so  strong  it  remains  silent 
until  its  circuit  is  completed,  and  for  that  com- 
pletion the  merest  touch  suffices.  Now  the 
thread  of  dust  in  the  coherer  forms  part  of  such 
a  telegraphic  circuit:  as  loose  dust  it  is  an  effect- 
113 


The   Wireless  Telegraph 

ual  bar  and  obstacle,  under  the  influence  of 
electric  waves  from  afar  it  changes  instantly  to  a 
coherent  metallic  link  which  at  once  completes 
the  circuit  and  delivers  the  message. 

An  electric  impulse,  almost  too  attenuated  for 
computation,  is  here  able  to  effect  such  a  change 
in  a  pinch  of  dust  that  it  becomes  a  free  avenue 
instead  of  a  barricade.  Through  that  avenue  a 
powerful  blow  from  a  local  store  of  energy  makes 
itself  heard  and  felt.  No  device  of  the  trigger 
class  is  comparable  with  this  in  delicacy.  An 
instant  after  a  signal  has  taken  its  way  through 
the  coherer  a  small  hammer  strikes  the  tiny  tube, 
jarring  its  particles  asunder,  so  that  they  resume 
their  normal  state  of  high  resistance.  We  may 
well  be  astonished  at  the  sensitiveness  of  the 
metallic  filings  to  an  electric  wave  originating 
many  miles  away,  but  let  us  remember  how 
clearly  the  eye  can  see  a  bright  lamp  at  the  same 
distance  as  it  sheds  a  sister  beam.  Thus  far  no 
substance  has  been  discovered  with  a  mechanical 
responsiveness  to  so  feeble  a  ray  of  light;  in  the 
world  of  nature  and  art  the  coherer  stands  alone. 
The  electric  waves  employed  by  Marconi  are 
about  four  feet  long,  or  have  a  frequency  of  about 
250,000,000  per  second.  Such  undulations  pass 
readily  through  brick  or  stone  walls,  through 
common  roofs  and  floors — indeed,  through  all 
substances  which  are  non-conductive  to  electric 
\Vaves  of  ordinary  length.  Were  the  energy  of  a 
Marconi  sending-instrument  applied  to  an  arc- 
lamp,  it  would  generate  a  beam  of  a  thousand 
117 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

candle-power.  We  have  thus  a  means  of  com- 
paring the  sensitiveness  of  the  retina  to  light 
with  the  responsiveness  of  the  Marconi  coherer 
to  electric  waves,  after  both  radiations  have 
undergone  a  journey  of  miles. 

An  essential  feature  of  this  method  of  etheric 
telegraphy,  due  to  Marconi  himself,  is  the  sus- 
pension of  a  perpendicular  wire  at  each  terminus, 
its  length  twenty  feet  for  stations  a  mile  apart, 
forty  feet  for  four  miles,  and  sc  on,  the  telegraphic 
distance  increasing  as  the  square  of  the  length 
of  suspended  wire.  In  the  Kingstown  regatta, 
July,  1898,  Marconi  sent  from  a  yacht  under  full 
steam  a  report  to  the  shore  without  the  loss  of  a 
moment  from  start  to  finish.  This  feat  was  re- 
peated during  the  protracted  contest  between 
the  Columbia  and  the  Shamrock  yachts  in  New 
York  Bay,  October,  1899.  On  March  28,  1899, 
Marconi  signals  put  Wimereux,  two  miles  north 
of  Boulogne,  in  communication  with  the  South 
Foreland  Lighthouse,  thirty-two  miles  off.* 
In  August,  1899,  during  the  manoeuvres  of  the 

*  The  value  of  wireless  telegraphy  in  relation  to  disasters 
at  sea  was  proved  in  a  remarkable  way  yesterday  morning- 
While  the  Channel  was  enveloped  in  a  dense  fog,  which  hac? 
lasted  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  night,  the  East 
Goodwin  Lightship  had  a  very  narrow  escape  from  sinking 
at  her  moorings  by  being  run  into  by  the  steamship  R.  F. 
Matthews,  1,964  tons  gross  burden,  of  London,  outward 
bound  from  the  Thames.  The  East  Goodwin  Lightship 
is  one  of  four  such  vessels  marking  the  Goodwin  Sands,  and, 
curiously  enough,  it  happens  to  be  the  one  ship  which  has 
been  fitted  out  with  Signor  Marconi's  installation  for  wire- 
!ess  telegraphy.  The  vessel  was  moored  about  twelve  miles 

118 


The   Wireless  Telegraph 

British  navy,  similar  messages  were  sent  as  far 
as  eighty  miles.  It  was  clearly  demonstrated 
that  a  new  power  had  been  placed  in  the  hands 
of  a  naval  commander.  "A  touch  on  a  button 
in  a  flagship  is  all  that  is  now  needed  to  initiate 
every  tactical  evolution  in  a  fleet,  and  insure  an 
almost  automatic  precision  in  the  resulting 
movements  of  the  ships.  The  flashing  lantern  is 
superseded  at  night,  flags  and  the  semaphore  by 
day,  or,  if  these  are  retained,  it  is  for  services 
purely  auxiliary.  The  hideous  and  bewildering 
shrieks  of  the  steam-siren  need  no  longer  be  heard 
in  a  fog,  and  the  uncertain  system  of  gun  signals 
will  soon  become  a  thing  of  the  past. "  The  in- 
terest of  the  naval  and  military  strategist  in  the 
Marconi  apparatus  extends  far  beyond  its  com- 
munication of  intelligence.  Any  electrical  ap- 
pliance whatever  may  be  set  in  motion  by  the 
same  wave  that  actuates  a  telegraphic  sounder. 
A  fuse  may  be  ignited,  or  a  motor  started  and 
directed,  by  apparatus  connected  with  the  co- 
herer, for  all  its  minuteness.  Mr.  Walter  Jamie- 

to  the  northeast  of  the  South  Foreland  Lighthouse  (where 
there  is  another  wireless-telegraphy  installation),  and  she 
is  about  ten  miles  from  the  shore,  being  directly  opposite 
Deal.  The  information  regarding  the  collision  was  at  once 
communicated  by  wireless  telegraphy  from  the  disabled 
lightship  to  the  South  Foreland  Lighthouse,  where  Mr. 
Bullock,  assistant  to  Signer  Marconi,  received  the  following 
message:  "We  have  just  been  run  into  by  the  steamer 
R.  F.  Matthews  of  London.  Steamship  is  standing  by  us. 
Our  bows  very  badly  damaged."  Mr.  Bullock  immediately 
forwarded  this  information  to  the  Trinity  House  authorities 
at  Ramsgate. — Times,  April  29,  1899. 
119 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

son  and  Mr.  John  Trotter  have  devised  means  for 
the  direction  of  torpedoes  by  ether  waves,  such 
as  those  set  at  work  in  the  wireless  telegraph. 
Two  rods  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  receive  the  waves,  and  are  in  circuit  with  a 
coherer  and  a  relay.  At  the  will  of  the  distant 
operator  a  hollow  wire  coil  bearing  a  current  draws 
in  an  iron  core  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left, 
moving  the  helm  accordingly. 

As  the  news  of  the  success  of  the  Marconi  tele- 
graph made  its  way  to  the  London  Stock  Ex- 
change there  was  a  fall  in  the  shares  of  cable 
companies.  The  fear  of  rivalry  from  the  new 
invention  was  baseless.  As  but  fifteen  words 
a  minute  are  transmissible  by  the  Marconi  sys- 
tem, it  evidently  does  not  compete  with  a  cable, 
such  as  that  between  France  and  England,  which 
can  transmit  2,500  words  a  minute  without  diffi- 
culty. The  Marconi  telegraph  comes  less  as  a 
competitor  to  old  systems  than  as  a  mode  of 
communication  which  creates  a  field  of  its  own. 
We  have  seen  what  it  may  accomplish  in  war, 
far  outdoing  any  feat  possible  to  other  appa- 
ratus, acoustic,  luminous,  or  electrical.  In  quite 
as  striking  fashion  does  it  break  new  ground  in 
the  service  of  commerce  and  trade.  It  enables 
lighthouses  continually  to  spell  their  names,  so 
that  receivers  aboard  ship  may  give  the  steers- 
men their  bearings  even  in  storm  and  fog.  In 
the  crowded  condition  of  the  steamship  "lanes" 
'  which  cross  the  Atlantic,  a  priceless  security 
against  collision  is  afforded  the  man  at  the  helm, 
120 


The   Wireless   Telegraph 

On  November  15,  1899,  Marconi  telegraphed 
from  the  American  liner  St.  Paul  to  the  Needles, 
sixty-six  nautical  miles  away.  On  December  1 1 
and  12,  1901,  he  received  wireless  signals  near 
St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  sent  from  Poldhu, 
Cornwall,  England,  or  a  distance  of  1,800  miles, 
— a  feat  which  astonished  the  world.  In  many 
cases  the  telegraphic  business  to  an  island  is  too 
small  to  warrant  the  laying  of  a  cable;  hence 
we  find  that  Trinidad  and  Tobago  are  to  be 
joined  by  the  wireless  system,  as  also  five  islands 
of  the  Hawaiian  group,  eight  to  sixty-one  miles 
apart. 

A  weak  point  in  the  first  Marconi  apparatus 
was  that  anybody  within  the  working  radius  of 
the  sending-instrument  could  read  its  messages. 
To  modify  this  objection  secret  codes  were  at 
times  employed,  as  in  commerce  and  diplomacy. 
A  complete  deliverance  from  this  difficulty  is 
promised  in  attuning  a  transmitter  and  a  receiver 
to  the  same  note,  so  that  one  receiver,  and  no 
other,  shall  respond  to  a  particular  frequency  of 
impulses.  The  experiments  which  indicate  suc- 
cess in  this  vital  particular  have  been  conducted 
by  Professor  Lodge. 

When  electricians,  twenty  years  ago,  com- 
mitted energy  to  a  wire  and  thus  enabled  it  to  go 
round  a  corner,  they  felt  that  they  had  done  well. 
The  Hertz  waves  sent  abroad  by  Marconi  ask  no 
wire,  as  they  find  their  way,  not  round  a  corner, 
but  through  a  corner.  On  May  i,  1899,  a  party 
of  French  officers  on  board  the  Ib is  at  Sangatte, 
121 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

near  Calais,  spoke  to  Wimereux  by  means  of  a 
Marconi  apparatus,  with  Cape  Grisnez,  a  lofty 
promontory,  intervening.  In  ascertaining  how 
much  the  earth  and  the  sea  may  obstruct  the 
waves  of  Hertz  there  is  a  broad  and  fruitful  field 
for  investigation.  "It  may  be,"  says  Professor 


Fig.  73 — Discontinuous  electric  waves 

John  Trowbridge,  "that  such  long  electrical 
waves  roll  around  the  surface  of  such  obstruc- 
tions very  much  as  waves  of  sound  and  of  water 
would  do. " 

It  is  singular  how  discoveries  sometimes  arrive 
abreast  of  each  other  so  as  to  render  mutual  aid, 
or  supply  a  pressing  want  almost  as  soon  as  it  is 
felt.  The  coherer  in  its  present  form  is  actuated 
by  waves  of  comparatively  low  frequency, 
which  rise  from  zero  to  full  height  in  extremely 
brief  periods,  and  are  separated  by  periods  de- 
cidedly longer  (Fig.  73).  What  is  needed  is  a 
plan  by  which  the  waves  may  flow  either  con- 
tinuously or  so  neat  together  that  they  may  lend 
themselves  to  attuning.  Dr.  Wehnelt,  by  an 
extraordinary  discovery,  may,  in  all  likelihood, 
provide  the  lacking  device  in  the  form  of  his  in- 
terrupter, which  breaks  an  electric  circuit  as  often 
as  two  thousand  times  a  second.  The  means  for 
122 


The   Wireless   Telegraph 

this  amazing  performance  are  simplicity  itself 
(Fig.  74).  A  jar,  a,  containing  a  solution  of  sul- 
phuric acid  has  two  elec- 
trodes immersed  in  it;  one 
of  them  is  a  lead  plate 
of  large  surface,  6;  the 
other  is  a  small  platinum 
wire  which  protrudes 
from  a  glass  tube,  d.  A 
current  passing  through 
the  cell  between  the  two 
metals  at  c  is  interrupted, 
in  ordinary  cases  five 
hundred  times  a  second, 
and  in  extreme  cases 
four  times  as  often, 

by  bubbles  of  gas  given  off  from  the  wire  instant 
by  instant. 


Fig. 74 
Wehnelt  interrupter 


123 


ELECTRICITY,    WHAT   ITS   MASTERY 

MEANS:    WITH   A   REVIEW 

AND   A   PROSPECT 

GEORGE  ILES 

[From  "Flame,  Electricity  and  the  Camera,"  copyright 
by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co.,  New  York.] 

WITH  the  mastery  of  electricity  man  enters 
upon  his  first  real  sovereignty  of  nature.  As  we 
hear  the  whirr  of  the  dynamo  or  listen  at  the  tele- 
phone, as  we  turn  the  button  of  an  incandescent 
lamp  or  travel  in  an  electromobile,  we  are  par- 
takers in  a  revolution  more  swift  and  profound 
than  has  ever  before  been  enacted  upon  earth. 
Until  the  nineteenth  century  fire  was  justly  ac- 
counted the  most  useful  and  versatile  servant  of 
man.  To-day  electricity  is  doing  all  that  fire 
ever  did,  and  doing  it  better,  while  it  accom- 
plishes uncounted  tasks  far  beyond  the  reach  of 
flame,  however  ingeniously  applied.  We  may 
thus  observe  under  our  eyes  just  such  an  impetus 
to  human  intelligence  and  power  as  when  fire 
was  first  subdued  to  the  purposes  of  man,  with 
the  immense  advantage  that,  whereas  the  subju- 
gation of  fire  demanded  ages  of  weary  and  un- 
certain experiment,  the  mastery  of  electricity  is, 
for  the  most  part,  the  assured  work  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and,  in  truth,  very  largely  of  its 
last  three  decades.  The  triumphs  of  the  elec- 
125 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

trician  are  of  absorbing  interest  in  themselves, 
they  bear  a  higher  significance  to  the  student  of 
man  as  a  creature  who  has  gradually  come  to  be 
what  he  is.  In  tracing  the  new  horizons  won  by 
electric  science  and  art,  a  beam  of  light  falls  on 
the  long  and  tortuous  paths  by  which  man  rose 
to  his  supremacy  long  before  the  drama  of 
human  life  had  been  chronicled  or  sung. 

Of  the  strides  taken  by  humanity  on  its  way 
to  the  summit  of  terrestrial  life,  there  are  but 
four  worthy  of  mention  as  preparing  the  way  for 
the  victories  of  the  electrician — the  attainment 
of  the  upright  attitude,  the  intentional  kindling 
of  fire,  the  maturing  of  emotional  cries  to  articu- 
late speech,  and  the  invention  of  written  symbols 
for  speech.  As  we  examine  electricity  in  its 
fruitage  we  shall  find  that  it  bears  the  unfailing 
mark  of  every  other  decisive  factor  of  human 
advance:  its  mastery  is  no  mere  addition  to  the 
resources  of  the  race,  but  a  multiplier  of  them. 
The  case  is  not  as  when  an  explorer  discovers  a 
plant  hitherto  unknown,  such  as  Indian  corn, 
which  takes  its  place  beside  rice  and  wheat  as  a 
new  food,  and  so  measures  a  service  which  ends 
there.  Nor  is  it  as  when  a  prospector  comes 
upon  a  new  metal,  such  as  nickel,  with  the  sole 
effect  of  increasing  the  variety  of  materials  from 
which  a  smith  may  fashion  a  hammer  or  a  blade. 
Almost  infinitely  higher  is  the  benefit  wrought 
when  energy  in  its  most  useful  phase  is,  for  the 
first  time,  subjected  to  the  will  of  man,  with 
dawning  knowledge  of  its  unapproachable 
126 


Electricity 

powers.  It  begins  at  once  to  marry  the  resources 
of  the  mechanic  and  the  chemist,  the  engineer 
and  the  artist,  with  issue  attested  by  all  its  own 
fertility,  while  its  rays  reveal  province  after 
province  undreamed  of,  and  indeed  unexisting, 
before  its  advent. 

Every  other  primal  gift  of  man  rises- to  a  new 
height  at  the  bidding  of  the  electrician.  All  the 
deftness  and  skill  that  have  followed  from  the 
upright  attitude,  in  its  creation  of  the  human 
hand,  have  been  brought  to  a  new  edge  and  a 
broader  range  through  electric  art.  Between  the 
uses  of  flame  and  electricity  have  sprung  up 
alliances  which  have  created  new  wealth  for  the 
miner  and  the  metal-worker,  the  manufacturer 
and  the  shipmaster,  with  new  insights  for  the 
man  of  research.  Articulate  speech  borne  on 
electric  waves  makes  itself  heard  half-way  across. 
America,  and  words  reduced  to  the  symbols  of 
symbols— expressed  in  the  perforations  of  a  strip 
of  paper — take  flight  through  a  telegraph  wire 
at  twenty-fold  the  pace  of  speech.  Because  the 
latest  leap  in  knowledge  and  faculty  has  been 
won  by  the  electrician,  he  has  widened  the  scien- 
tific outlook  vastly  more  than  any  explorer  who 
went  before.  Beyond  any  predecessor,  he  began 
with  a  better  equipment  and  a  larger  capital  to 
prove  the  gainfulncss  which  ever  attends  the 
exploiting  a  supreme  agent  of  discovery. 

As  we  trace  a  few  of   the  unending  interlace- 
ments of  electrical  science   and  art  with  other 
sciences    and    arts,    and    sttidy    their    mutually 
127 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

stimulating  effects,  we  shall  be  reminded  of  a 
series  of  permutations  where  the  latest  of  the 
factors,  because  latest,  multiplies  all  prior  factors 
in  an  unexampled  degree.*  We  shall  find  reason 
to  believe  that  this  is  not  merely  a  suggestive 
analogy,  but  really  true  as  a  tendency,  not  only 
with  regard  to  man's  gains  by  the  conquest  of 
electricity,  but  also  .with  respect  to  every  other 
signal  victory  which  has  brought  him  to  his 
present  pinnacle  of  discernment  and  rule.  If 
this  permutative  principle  in  former  advances 
lay  undetected,  it  stands  forth  clearly  in  that 
latest  accession  to  skill  and  interpretation  which 
has  been  ushered  in  by  Franklin  and  Volta, 
Faraday  and  Henry. 

Although  of  much  less  moment  than  the 
triumphs  of  the  electrician,  the  discovery  of 
photography  ranks  second  in  importance  among 
the  scientific  feats  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  camera  is  an  artificial  eye  with  almost  every 
power  of  the  human  retina,*  and  with  many  that 

*  Permutations  are  the  various  ways  in  which  two  or 
more  different  things  may  be  arranged  in  a  row,  all  the  things 
appearing  in  each  row.  Permutations  are  readily  illus- 
trated with  squares  or  cubes  of  different  colours,  with  num- 
bers, or  letters. 

Permutations  of  two  elements,  i  and  2,  are  (1x2)  two; 
i,  2;  2,  i ;  or  a,  b;  b,  a.  Of  three  elements  the  permutations 
are  (i  x  2  x  3)  six;  i,  2,  3;  i,  3,  2;  2,  i,  3;  2,  3,  i ;  3,  i,  2,  3,  2,  i; 
or  a,  b,  c;  a,  c,  b;  b,  a,  c;,  b,  c,  a;  c,  a,  b;  c,  b,  a.  Of  four  ele- 
ments the  permutations  are  (1x2x3x4)  twenty-f  oxtr ; 
of  five  elements,  one  hundred  and  twenty,  and  so  on.  A 
new  element  or  permutator  multiplies  by  an  increasing 
figure  all  the  permutations  it  finds. 

128 


Electricity 

are  denied  to  vision — however  ingeniously  for- 
tified by  the  lens-maker.  A  brief  outline  of 
photographic  history  will  show  a  parallel  to  the 
permutative  impulse  so  conspicuous  in  the  pro- 
gress of  electricity.  At  the  points  where  the 
electrician  and  the  photographer  collaborate 
we  shall  note  achievements  such  as  only  the 
loftiest  primal  powers  may  evoke. 

A  brief  story  of  what  electricity  and  its 
necessary  precursor,  fire,  have  done  and  promise 
to  do  for  civilization,  may  have  attraction  in  itself; 
so,  also,  may  a  review,  though  most  cursory,  of 
the  work  of  the  camera  and  all  that  led  up  to  it : 
for  the  provinces  here  are  as  wide  as  art  and 
science,  and  their  bounds  comprehend  well-nigh 
the  entirety  of  human  exploits.  And  between 
the  lines  of  this  story  wre  may  read  another — • 
one  which  may  tell  us  something  of  the  earliest 
stumblings  in  the  dawn  of  human  faculty. 
When  we  compare  man  and  his  next  of  kin,  we 
find  between  the  two  a  great  gulf,  surely  the 
widest  betwixt  any  allied  families  in  nature. 
Can  a  being  of  intellect,  conscience,  and  aspira- 
tion have  sprung  at  any  time,  however  remote, 
from  the  same  stock  as  the  orang  and  the  chim- 
panzee? Since  1859,  when  Darwin  published 
his  ''Origin  of  Species,"  the  theory  of  evolution 
has  become  so  generally  accepted  that  to-day  it 
is  little  more  assailed  than  the  doctrine  of  gravi- 
tation. And  yet,  while  the  average  man  of  in- 
telligence bows  to  the  formula  that  all  which 
now  exists  has  come  from  the  simplest  conceiv- 
129 


Masterpieces    of    Science 

able  state  of  things, — a  universal  nebula,  if  you 
will, — in  his  secret  soul  he  makes  one  exception — 
himself.  That  there  is  a  great  deal  more  assent 
than  conviction  in  the  world  is  a  chiding  which 
may  come  as  justly  from  the  teacher's  table  as 
from  the  preacher's  pulpit.  Now,  if  we  but 
catch  the  meaning  of  man's  mastery  of  electricity, 
we  shall  have  light  upon  his  earlier  steps  as  a  fire- 
kindler,  and  as  a  graver  of  pictures  and  symbols 
on  bone  and  rock.  As  we  thus  recede  from  civili- 
zation to  primeval  savagery,  the  process  of  the 
making  of  man  may  become  so  clear  that  the 
arguments  of  Darwin  shall  be  received  with  con- 
viction, and  not  with  silent  repulse. 

As  we  proceed  to  recall,  one  by  one,  the  salient 
chapters  in  the  history  of  fire,  and  of  the  arts  of 
depiction  that  foreran  the  camera,  we  shall  per- 
ceive a  truth  of  high  significance.  We  shall  see 
that,  while  every  new  faculty  has  its  roots  deep 
in  older  powers,  and  while  its  growth  may  have 
been  going  on  for  age  after  age,  yet  its  flowering 
may  be  as  the  event  of  a  morning.  Even  as  our 
gardens  show  us  the  century-plants,  once  sup- 
posed to  bloom  only  at  the  end  of  a  hundred 
years,  so  history,  in  the  large,  exhibits  discover- 
ies whose  harvests  are  gathered  only  after  the 
lapse  of  aeons  instead  of  years.  The  arts  of  fire 
were  slowly  elaborated  until  man  had  produced 
the  crucible  and  the  still,  through  which  his 
labours  culminated  in  metals  purified,  in  acids 
vastly  more  corrosive  than  those  of  vegetation, 
in  glass  and  porcelain  equally  resistant  to  flame 
130 


Electricity 

and  the  electric  wave.  These  were  combined  in 
an  hour  by  Volta  to  build  his  cell,  and  in  that 
hour  began  a  new  era  for  human  faculty  and  in- 
sight. 

It  is  commonly  imagined  that  the  progress  of 
humanity  has  been  at  a  tolerably  uniform  pace. 
Our  review  of  that  progress  will  show  that  here 
and  there  in  its  course  have  been  leaps,  as  radi- 
cally new  forces  have  been  brought  under  the 
dominion  of  man.  We  of  the  electric  revolu- 
tion are  sharply  marked  off  from  our  great- 
grandfathers, who  looked  upon  the  cell  of  Volta 
as  a  curious  toy.  They,  in  their  turn,  were  pro- 
foundly differenced  from  the  men  of  the  seven- 
teenth century,  who  had  not  learned  that  flame 
could  outvie  the  horse  as  a  carrier,  and  grind 
wheat  better  than  the  mill  urged  by  the  breeze. 
And  nothing  short  of  an  abyss  stretches  between 
these  men  and  their  remote  ancestors,  who  had 
not  found  a  way  to  warm  their  frosted  fingers 
or  lengthen  with  lamp  or  candle  the  short, 
dark  days  of  winter. 

Throughout  the  pages  of  this  book  there  will  be 
some  recital  of  the  victories  won  by  the  fire- 
maker,  the  electrician,  the  photographer,  and 
many  more  in  the  peerage  of  experiment  and 
research.  Underlying  the  sketch  will  appear 
the  significant  contrast  betwixt  accessions  of 
minor  and  of  supreme  dignity.  The  finding  a 
new  wood,  such  as  that  of  the  yew,  means  better 
bows  for  the  archer,  stronger  handles  for  the 
tool-maker;  the  subjugation  of  a  universal  force 
131 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

such  as  fire,  or  electricity,  stands  for  the  exalta- 
tion of  power  in  every  field  of  toil,  for  the  creation 
of  a  new  earth  for  the  worker,  new  heavens  for 
the  thinker.  As  a  corollary,  we  shall  observe 
that  an  increasing  width  of  gap  marks  off  the 
successive  stages  of  human  progress  from  each 
other,  so  that  its  latest  stride  is  much  the  longest 
and  most  decisive.  And  it  will  be  further  evi- 
dent that,  while  every  new  faculty  is  of  age-long 
derivation  from  older  powers  and  ancient  apti- 
tudes, it  nevertheless  comes  to  the  birth  in  a 
moment,  as  it  were,  and  puts  a  strain  of  probably 
fatal  severity  on  those  contestants  who  miss 
the  new  gift  by  however  little.  We  shall,  there- 
fore, find  that  the  principle  of  permutation,  here 
merely  indicated,  accounts  in  large  measure  for 
three  cardinal  facts  in  the  history  of  man :  First, 
his  leaps  forward;  second,  the  constant  accelera- 
tions in  these  leaps;  and  third,  the  gap  in  the 
record  of  the  tribes  which,  in  the  illimitable  past, 
have  succumbed  as  forces  of  a  new  edge  and 
sweep  have  become  engaged  in  the  fray.* 

The  interlacements  of  the  arts  of  fire  and  of 
electricity  are  intimate  and  pervasive.  While 
many  of  the  uses  of  flame  date  back  to  the  dawn 
of  human  skill,  many  more  have  become  of  new 
and  higher  value  within  the  last  hundred  years. 
Fire  to-day  yields  motive  power  with  tenfold 

*  Some  years  ago  I  sent  an  outline  of  this  argument  to 
Herbert  Spencer,  who  replied:  "I  recognize  a  novelty  and 
value  in  your  inference  that  the  law  implies  an  increasing 
width  of  gap  between  lower  and  higher  types  as  evolution 
advances." 

132 


Electricity 

the  economy  of  a  hundred  years  ago,  and  motive 
power  thus  derived  is  the  main  source  of  modern 
electric  currents.  In  metallurgy  there  has  long 
been  an  unwitting  preparation  for  the  advent  of 
the  electrician,  and  here  the  services  of  fire  within 
the  nineteenth  century  have  won  triumphs  upon 
which  the  later  successes  of  electricity  largely 
proceed.  In  producing  alloys,  and  in  the  singu- 
lar use  of  heat  to  effect  its  own  banishment, 
novel  and  radical  developments  have  been  re- 
corded within  the  past  decade  or  two.  These, 
also,  make  easier  and  bolder  the  electrician's 
tasks.  The  opening  chapters  of  this  book  will, 
therefore,  bestow  a  glance  at  the  principal  uses 
of  fire  as  these  have  been  revealed  and  applied. 
This  glance  will  make  clear  how  fire  and  electrici- 
ty supplement  each  other  with  new  and  re- 
markable gains,  while  in  other  fields,  not  less 
important,  electricity  is  nothing  else  than  a 
supplanter  of  the  very  force  which  made  possible 
its  own  discovery  and  impressment. 

[Here  follow  chapters  which  outline  the  chief 
applications  of  flame  and  of  electricity.] 

Let  us  compare  electricity  with  its  precursor, 
fire,  and  we  shall  understand  the  revolution  by 
which  fire  is  now  in  so  many  tasks  supplanted  by 
the  electric  pulse  which,  the  while,  creates  for  it- 
self a  thousand  fields  denied  to  flame.  Copper  is 
an  excellent  thermal  conductor,  and  yet  it  trans- 
mits heat  almost  infinitely  more  slowly  than  it 
conveys  electricity.  One  end  of  a  thick  copper 
rod  ten  feet  long  may  be  safely  held  in  the  hand 
133 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

while  the  other  end  is  heated  to  redness,  yet  one 
millionth  part  of  this  same  energy,  if  in  the  form 
of  electricity,  would  traverse  the  rod  in  one 
ioo,ooo,oooth  part  of  a  second.  Compare  next 
electricity  with  light,  often  the  companion  of 
heat.  Light  travels  in  straight  lines  only;  elec- 
tricity can  go  round  a  corner  every  inch  for 
miles,  and,  none  the  worse,  yield  a  brilliant 
beam  at  the  end  of  its  journey.  Indirectly, 
therefore,  electricity  enables  us  to  conduct  either 
heat  or  light  as  if  both  were  flexible  pencils  of 
rays,  and  subject  to  but  the  smallest  tolls  in 
their  travel. 

We  have  remarked  upon  such  methods  as 
those  of  the  electric  welder  which  summon  in- 
tense heat  without  fire,  and  we  have  glanced  at 
the  electric  lamps  which  shine  just  because  com- 
bustion is  impossible  through  their  rigid  ex- 
clusion of  air.  Then  for  a  moment  we  paused  to 
look  at  the  plating  baths  which  have  developed 
themselves  into  a  commanding  rivalry  with  the 
blaze  of  the  smelting  furnace,  with  the  flame  which 
from  time  immemorial  has  filled  the  ladle  of  the 
founder  and  moulder.  Thus  methods  that  com- 
menced in  dismissing  flame  end  boldly  by  dis- 
possessing heat  itself.  But,  it  may  be  said,  this 
usurping  electricity  usually  finds  its  source,  after 
all,  in  combustion  under  a  steam-boiler.  True, 
but  mark  the  harnessing  of  Niagara,  of  the 
Lachine  Rapids  near  Montreal,  of  a  thousand 
streams  elsewhere.  In  the  near  future  motive 
power  of  Nature's  giving  is  to  be  wasted  less  and 
134 


Electricity 

less,  and  perforce  will  more  and  more  exclude  heat 
from  the  chain  of  transformations  which  issue 
in  the  locomotive's  flight,  in  the  whirl  of  factory 
and  mill.  Thus  in  some  degree  is  allayed  the 
fear,  never  well  grounded,  that  when  the  coal 
fields  of  the  globe  are  spent  civilization  must 
collapse.  As  the  electrician  hears  this  forebod- 
ing he  recalls  how  much  fuel  is  wasted  in  con- 
verting heat  into  electricity.  He  looks  beyond 
either  turbine  or  shaft  turned  by  wind  or  tide, 
and,  remembering  that  the  metal  dissolved  in 
his  battery  yields  at  his  will  its  full  content  of 
energy,  either  as  heat  or  electricity,  he  asks, 
Why  may  not  coal  or  forest  tree,  which  are  but 
other  kinds  of  fuel,  be  made  to  do  the  same  ? 

One  of  the  earliest  uses  of  light  was  a  means  of 
communicating  intelligence,  and  to  this  day  the 
signal  lamp  and  the  red  fire  of  the  mariner  are  as 
useful  as  of  old.  But  how  much  wider  is  the  field 
of  electricity  as  it  creates  the  telegraph  and  the 
telephone  !  In  the  telegraph  we  have  all  that 
a  pencil  of  light  could  be  were  it  as  long  as  an 
equatorial  girdle  and  as  flexible  as  a  silken  thread. 
In  the  telephone  for  nearly  two  thousand  miles 
the  pulsations  of  the  speaker's  voice  are  not  only 
audible,  but  retain  their  characteristic  tones. 

In  the  field  of  mechanics  electricity  is  decidedly 
preferable  to  any  other  agent.  Heat  may  be 
transformed  into  motive  power  by  a  suitable 
engine,  but  there  its  adaptability  is  at  an  end. 
An  electric  current  drives  not  only  a  motor,  but 
every  machine  and  tool  attached  to  the  motor, 
135 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

the  whole  executing  tasks  of  a  delicacy  and  com- 
plication new  to  industrial  art.  On  an  electric 
railroad  an  identical  current  propels  the  train, 
directs  it  by  telegraph,  operates  its  signals,  pro- 
vides it  with  light  and  heat,  while  it  stands  ready 
to  give  constant  verbal  communication  with 
any  station  on  the  line,  if  this  be  desired. 

In  the  home  electricity  has  equal  versatility, 
at  once  promoting  healthfulness,  refinement 
and  safety.  Its  tiny  button  expels  the  hazard- 
ous match  as  it  lights  a  lamp  which  sends  forth 
no  baleful  fumes.  An  electric  fan  brings  fresh 
air  into  the  house — in  summer  as  a  grateful 
breeze.  Simple  telephones,  quite  effective  for 
their  few  yards  of  wire,  give  a  better  because  a 
more  flexible  service  than  speaking-tubes.  Few 
invalids  are  too  feeble  to  whisper  at  the  light, 
portable  ear  of  metal.  Sewing-machines  and 
the  more  exigent  apparatus  of  the  kitchen  ind 
laundry  transfer  their  demands  from  flagging 
human  muscles  to  the  tireless  sinews  of  electric 
motors — which  ask  no  wages  when  they  stand 
unemployed.  Similar  motors  already  enjoy 
favour  in  working  the  elevators  of  tall  dwellings 
in  cities.  If  a  householder  is  timid  about  burg- 
lars, the  electrician  offers  him  a  sleepless  watch- 
man in  the  guise  of  an  automatic  alarm;  if  he 
has  a  dread  of  fire,  let  him  dispose  on  his  walls  an 
array  of  thermometers  that  at  the  very  inception 
of  a  blaze  will  strike  a  gong  at  headquarters. 
But  these,  after  all,  are  matters  of  minor  im- 
portance in  comparison  with  the  foundations 
136 


Electricity 

upon  which  may  be  reared,  not  a  new  piece  of 
mechanism,  but  a  new  science  or  a  new  art. 

In  the  recent  swift  subjugation  of  the  territory 
open  alike  to  the  chemist  and  the  electrician, 
where  each  advances  the  quicker  for  the  other's 
company,  we  have  fresh  confirmation  of  an  old 
truth — that  the  boundary  lines  which  mark  off 
one  field  of  science  from  another  are  purely  artifi- 
cial, are  set  up  only  for  temporary  convenience. 
The  chemist  has  only  to  dig  deep  enough  to  find 
that  the  physicist  and  himself  occupy  common 
ground.      "Delve  from  the  surface  of  your  sphere 
to  its  heart,  and  at  once  your  radius  joins  every 
other. "     Even   the   briefest    glance    at    electro- 
chemistry should  pause  to  acknowledge  its  pro- 
found debt  to  the  new  theories  as  to  the  bonding 
of  atoms  to  form  molecules,  and  of  the  continuity 
between    solution    and    electrical    dissociation. 
However  much  these  hypotheses  may  be  modi- 
fied as  more  light  is  shed  on  the  geometry  and 
the  journeyings  of  the  molecule,  they  have  for  the 
time  being  recommended  themselves  as  finder- 
thoughts  of  golden  value.     These  speculations  of 
the  chemist  carry  him  back  perforce  to  the  days 
of  his  childhood.     As  he  then  joined  together 
his  black  and  white  bricks  I }  6  found  that  he  could 
build  cubes  of  widely  different  patterns.     It  was 
in  propounding  a  theory  of  molecular  architec- 
ture that  Kekul6  gave  an  impetus  to  a  vast  and 
growing  branch  of  chemical  industry — that  of 
the  synthetic  production  of  dy(  s  and  allied  com- 
pounds. 

137 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

It  was  in  pure  research,  in  paths  undirected  to 
the  market-place,  that  such  theories  have  been 
thought  out.  Let  us  consider  electricity  as  an 
aid  to  investigation  conducted  for  its  own  sake. 
The  chief  physical  generalization  of  our  time, 
and  of  all  time,  the  persistence  of  force,  emerged 
to  view  only  with  the  dawn  of  electric  art. 
When  it  was  observed  that  electricity  might  be- 
come heat,  light,  chemical  action,  or  mechanical 
motion,  that  in  turn  any  of  these  might  produce 
electricity,  it  was  at  once  indicated  that  all  these 
phases  of  energy  might  differ  from  each  other 
only  as  the  movements  in  circles,  volutes,  and 
spirals  of  ordinary  mechanism.  The  suggestion 
was  confirmed  when  electrical  measurers  were 
refined  to  the  utmost  precision,  and  a  single 
quantum  of  energy  was  revealed  a  very  Proteus 
in  its  disguises,  yet  beneath  these  disguises  noth- 
ing but  constancy  itself. 

"There  is  that  scattereth,  and  yet  increaseth; 
and  there  is  that  withholdeth  more  than  is  meet, 
but  it  tendeth  to  poverty.  "  Because  the  geom- 
eters of  old  patiently  explored  the  properties  of 
the  triangle,  the  circle,  and  the  ellipse,  simply 
for  pure  love  of  truth,  they  laid  the  corner-stones 
for  the  arts  of  the  architect,  the  engineer,  and  the 
navigator.  In  like  manner  it  was  the  disinter- 
ested work  of  investigation  conducted  by  Am- 
pere, Faraday,  Henry  and  their  compeers,  in  as- 
certaining the  laws  of  electricity  which  made 
possible  the  telegraph,  the  telephone,  the  dyna- 
mo, and  the  electric  furnace.  The  vital  relations 
138 


Electricity 

between  pure  research  and  economic  gain  have 
at  last  worked  themselves  clear.  It  is  perfectly 
plain  that  a  man  who  has  it  in  him  to  discover 
laws  of  matter  and  energy  does  incomparably 
more  for  his  kind  than  if  he  carried  his  talents 
to  the  mint  for  conversion  into  coin.  The  voy- 
age of  a  Columbus  may  not  immediately  bear  as 
much  fruit  as  the  uncoverings  of  a  mine  prospec- 
tor, but  in  the  long  run  a  Columbus  makes  possi- 
ble the  finding  many  mines  which  without  him 
no  prospector  would  ever  see.  Therefore  let  the 
seed-corn  of  knowledge  be  planted  rather  than 
eaten.  But  in  choosing  between  one  research 
and  another  it  is  impossible  to  foretell  which  may 
prove  the  richer  in  its  harvests;  for  instance,  all 
attempts  thus  far  economically  to  oxidize  carbon 
for  the  production  of  electricity  have  failed,  yet 
in  observations  that  at  first  seemed  equally 
barren  have  lain  the  hints  to  which  we  owe  the 
incandescent  lamp  and  the  wireless  telegraph. 

Perhaps  the  most  promising  field  of  electrical 
research  is  that  of  discharges  at  high  pressures; 
here  the  leading  American  investigators  are 
Professor  John  Trowbridge  and  Professor  Elihu 
Thomson.  Employing  a  tension  estimated  at  one 
and  a  half  millions  volts,  Professor  Trowbridge 
has  produced  flashes  of  lightning  six  feet  in 
length  in  atmospheric  air;  in  a  tube  exhausted 
to  one-seventh  of  atmospheric  pressure  the 
flashes  extended  themselves  to  forty  feet.  Ac- 
cording to  this  inquirer,  the  familiar  rending  of 
trees  by  lightning  is  due  to  the  intense  heat 
139 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

developed  in  an  instant  by  the  electric  spark; 
the  sudden  expansion  of  air  or  steam  in  the 
cavities  of  the  wood  causes  an  explosion.  The 
experiments  of  Professor  Thomson  confront  him 
with  some  of  the  seeming  contradictions  which 
ever  await  the  explorer  of  new  scientific  territory. 
In  the  atmosphere  an  electrical  discharge  is 
facilitated  when  a  metallic  terminal  (as  a  light- 
ning rod)  is  shaped  as  a  point ;  under  oil  a  point 
is  the  form  least  favourable  to  discharge.  In  the 
same  line  of  paradox  it  is  observed  that  oil 
steadily  improves  in  its  insulating  effect  the 
higher  the  electrical  pressure  committed  to  its 
keeping;  with  air  as  an  insulator  the  contrary  is 
the  fact.  These  and  a  goodly  array  of  similar 
puzzles  will,  without  doubt,  be  cleared  up  as 
students  in  the  twentieth  century  pass  from 
the  twilight  of  anomaly  to  the  sunshine  of  as- 
certained law. 

"Before  there  can  be  applied  science  there 
must  be  science  to  apply, "  and  it  is  by  enabling 
the  investigator  to  know  nature  under  a  fresh 
aspect  that  electricity  rises  to  its  highest  office. 
The  laboratory  routine  of  ascertaining  the  con- 
ductivity, polarisability,  and  other  electrical 
properties  of  matter  is  dull  and  exacting  work, 
but  it  opens  to  the  student  new  windows  through 
which  to  peer  at  the  architecture  of  matter. 
That  architecture,  as  it  rises  to  his  view,  dis- 
closes one  law  of  structure  after  another;  what 
in  a  first  and  clouded  glance  seemed  anomaly 
is  now  resolved  and  reconciled;  order  displays 
140 


Electricity 

itself  where  once  anarchy  alone  .  appeared. 
When  the  investigator  now  needs  a  substance 
of  peculiar  properties  he  knows  where  to  find  it, 
or  has  a  hint  for  its  creation — a  creation  perhaps 
new  in  the  history  of  the  world.  As  he  thinks  of 
the  wealth  of  qualities  possessed  by  his  store 
of  alloys,  salts,  acids,  alkalies,  new  uses  for  them 
are  borne  into  his  mind.  Yet  more — a  new 
orchestration  of  inquiry  is  possible  by  means  of 
the  instruments  created  for  him  by  the  electrician, 
through  the  advances  in  method  which  these 
instruments  effect.  With  a  second  and  more 
intimate  point  of  view  arrives  a  new  trigonome- 
try of  the  particle,  a  trigonometry  inconceivable 
in  pre-electric  days.  Hence  a  surround  is  in 
progress  which  early  in  the  twentieth  century 
may  go  full  circle,  making  atom  and  molecule  as 
obedient  to  the  chemist  as  brick  and  stone  are 
to  the  builder  now. 

The  laboratory  investigator  and  the  commer- 
cial exploiter  of  his  discoveries  have  been  by 
turns  borrower  and  lender,  to  the  great  profit  of 
both.  What  Ley  den  jar  could  ever  be  con- 
structed of  the  size  and  revealing  power  of  an 
Atlantic  cable  ?  And  how  many  refinements 
of  measurement,  of  purification  of  metals,  of 
precision  in  manufacture,  have  been  imposed 
by  the  colossal  investments  in  deep-sea  telegraphy 
alone  !  When  a  current  admitted  to  an  ocean 
cable,  such  as  that  between  Biest  and  New  York, 
can  choose  for  its  path  either  3,540  miles  of  copper 
wire  or  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  gutta-percha, 
141 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

there  is  a  dangerous  opportunity  for  escape  into 
the  sea,  unless  the  current  is  of  nicely  adjusted 
strength,  and  the  insulator  has  been  made  and 
laid  with,  the  best-informed  skill,  the  most  con- 
scientious care.  In  the  constant  tests  required 
in  laying  the  first  cables  Lord  Kelvin  (then 
Professor  William  Thomson)  felt  the  need  for 
better  designed  and  more  sensitive  galvano- 
meters or  current  measurers.  His  great  skill 
both  as  a  mathematician  and  a  mechanician 
created  the  existing  instruments,  which  seem 
beyond  improvement.  They  serve  not  only  in 
commerce  and  manufacture,  but  in  promoting 
the  strictly  scientific  work  of  the  laboratory. 
Now  that  electricity  purifies  copper  as  fire  can- 
not, the  mathematician  is  able  to  treat  his  prob- 
lems of  long-distance  transmission,  of  traction, 
of  machine  design,  with  an  economy  and  cer- 
tainty impossible  when  his  materials  were  not 
simply  impure,  but  impure  in  varying  and  in- 
definite degrees.  The  factory  and  the  work- 
shop originally  took  their  magneto-machines 
from  the  experimental  laboratory;  they  have  re- 
turned them  remodelled  beyond  recognition  as 
dynamos  and  motors  of  almost  ideal  effective- 
ness. 

A  galvanometer  actuated  by  a  thermo-electric 
pile  furnishes  much  the  most  sensitive  means 
of  detecting  changes  of  temperature;  hence  elec- 
tricity enables  the  physicist  to  study  the  phe- 
nomena of  heat  with  new  ease  and  precision.  It 
was  thus  that  Professor  Tyndall  conducted  the 
142 


Electricity 

classical  researches  set  forth  in  his  "Heat  as  a 
Mode  of  Motion,"  ascertaining  the  singular 
power  to  absorb  terrestrial  heat  which  makes  the 
aqueous  vapours  of  the  atmosphere  act  as  an 
indispensable  blanket  to  the  earth. 

And  how  vastly  has  electricity,  whether  in  the 
workshop  or  laboratory,  enlarged  our  conceptions 
of  the  forces  that  thrill  space,  of  the  substances, 
seemingly  so  simple,  that  surround  us — sub- 
stances that  propound  questions  of  structure 
and  behaviour  that  silence  the  acutest  investiga- 
tor. "You  ask  me,"  said  a  great  physicist,  "if 
I  have  a  theory  of  the  universe  ?  Why,  I  haven't 
even  a  theory  of  magnetism! " 

The  conventional  phrase  "conducting  a  cur- 
rent" is  now  understood  to  be  mere  figure  of 
speech;  it  is  thought  that  a  wire  does  little  else 
than  give  direction  to  electric  energy.  Pulsa- 
tions of  high  tension  have  been  proved  to  be 
mainly  superficial  in  their  journeys,  so  that  they 
are  best  conveyed  (or  convoyed)  by  conductors 
of  tubular  form.  And  what  is  it  that  moves  when 
we  speak  of  conduction  ?  It  seems  to  be  now 
the  molecule  of  atomic  chemistry,  and  anon  the 
same  ether  that  undulates  with  light  or  radiant 
heat.  Indeed,  the  conquest  of  electricity  means 
so  much  because  it  impresses  the  molecule  and 
the  ether  into  service  as  its  vehicles  of  communi- 
cation. Instead  of  the  old-time  masses  of  metal, 
or  bands  of  leather,  which  moved  stiffly  through 
ranges  comparatively  short,  there  is  to-day  em- 
ployed a  medium  which  may  traverse  186,400 
143 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

miles  in  a  second,  and  with  resistances  most 
trivial  in  contrast  with  those  of  mechanical 
friction. 

And  what  is  friction  in  the  last  analysis  but 
the  production  of  motion  in  undesired  forms,  the 
allowing  valuable  energy  to  do  useless  work  ? 
In  that  amazing  case  of  long  distance  transmis- 
sion, common  sunshine,  a  solar  beam  arrives  at 
the  earth  from  the  sun  not  one  whit  the  weaker 
for  its  excursion  of  92,000,000  miles.  It  is 
highly  probable  that  we  are  surrounded  by 
similar  cases  of  the  total  absence  of  friction  in 
the  phenomena  of  both  physics  and  chemistry, 
and  that  art  will  come  nearer  and  nearer  to 
nature  in  this  immunity  is  assured  when  we  see 
how  many  steps  in  that  direction  have  already 
been  taken  by  the  electrical  engineer.  In  a 
preceding  page  a  brief  account  was  given  of  the 
theory  that  gases  and  vapours  are  in  ceaseless 
motion.  This  motion  suffers  no  abatement  from 
friction,  and  hence  we  may  infer  that  the  mole- 
cules concerned  are  perfectly  elastic.  The 
opinion  is  gaining  ground  among  physicists  that 
all  the  properties  of  matter,  transparency, 
chemical  combinability,  and  the  rest,  are  due  to 
immanent  motion  in  particular  orbits,  with 
diverse  velocities.  If  this  be  established,  then 
these  motions  also  suffer  no  friction,  and  go  on 
without  resistance  forever. 

As  the  investigators  in  the  vanguard  of  science 
discuss  the  constitution  of  matter,  and  weave 
hypotheses  more  or  less  fruitful  as  to  the  inter- 
144 


Electricity 

play  of  its  forces,  there  is  a  growing  faith  that 
the  day  is  at  hand  when  the  tie  between  electri- 
city and  gravitation  will  be  unveiled — when  the 
reason  why  matter  has  weight  will  cease  to  puz- 
zle the  thinker.  Who  can  tell  what  relief  of 
man's  estate  may  be  bound  up  with  the  ability 
to  transform  any  phase  of  energy  into  any  other 
without  the  circuitous  methods  and  serious  losses 
of  to-day  !  In  the  sphere  of  economic  progress 
one  of  the  supreme  advances  was  due  to  the  in- 
vention of  money,  the  providing  a  medium  for 
which  any  salable  thing  may  be  exchanged, 
with  which  any  purchasable  thing  may  be 
bought.  As  soon  as  a  shell,  or  a  hide,  or  a  bit  of 
metal  was  recognized  as  having  universal  con- 
vertibility, all  the  delays  and  discounts  of  barter 
were  at  an  end.  In  the  world  of  physics  and 
chemistry  the  corresponding  medium  is  elec- 
tricity; let  it  be  produced  as  readily  as  it  pro- 
duces other  modes  of  motion,  and  human  art 
will  take  a  stride  forward  such  as  when  Volta 
disposed  his  zinc  and  silver  discs  together,  or 
when  Faraday  set  a  magnet  moving  around  a 
copper  wire. 

For  all  that  the  electric  current  is'  not  as  yet 
produced  as  economically  as  it  should  be,  we  do 
wrong  if  we  regard  it  as  an  infant  force.  How- 
ever much  new  knowledge  may  do  with  elec- 
tricity in  the  laboratory,  in  the  factory,  or  in  the 
exchange,  some  of  its  best  work  is  already  done. 
It  is  not  likely  ever  to  perform  a  greater  feat 
than  placing  all  mankind  within  ear-shot  of  each 
145 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

other.  Were  electricity  unmastered  there  could 
be  no  democratic  government  of  the  United 
States.  To-day  the  drama  of  national  affairs 
is  more  directly  in  view  of  every  American  citizen 
than,  a  century  ago,  the  public  business  of  Dela- 
ware could  be  to  the  men  of  that  little  State. 
And  when  on  the  broader  stage  of  international 
politics  misunderstandings  arise,  let  us  note  how 
the  telegraph  has  modified  the  hard-and-fast 
rules  of  old-time  diplomacy.  To-day,  through 
the  columns  of  the  press,  the  facts  in  controversy 
are  instantly  published  throughout  the  world, 
and  thus  so  speedily  give  rise  to  authoritative 
comment  that  a  severe  strain  is  put  upon  nego- 
tiators whose  tradition  it  is  to  be  both  secret  and 
slow. 

Railroads,  with  all  they  mean  for  civilization, 
could  not  have  extended  themselves  without  the 
telegraph  to  control  them.  And  railroads  and 
telegraphs  are  the  sinews  and  nerves  of  national 
life,  the  prime  agencies  in  welding  the  diverse 
and  widely  separated  States  and  Territories  of 
the  Union.  A  Boston  merchant  builds  a  cotton- 
mill  in  Georgia;  a  New  York  capitalist  opens  a 
copper-mine  in  Arizona.  The  telegraph  which 
informs  them  day  by  day  how  their  investments 
prosper  tells  idle  men  where  they  can  find  work, 
where  work  can  seek  idle  men.  Chicago  is  laid 
in  ashes,  Charleston  topples  in  earthquake, 
Johnstown  is  whelmed  in  flood,  and  instantly 
a  continent  springs  to  their  relief.  And  what 
benefits  issue  in  the  strictly  commercial  uses  of 
146 


Electricity 

the  telegraph  !  At  its  click  both  locomotive  and 
steamship  speed  to  the  relief  of  famine  in  any 
quarter  of  the  globe.  In  times  of  plenty  or  of 
dearth  the  markets  of  the  globe  are  merged 
and  are  brought  to  every  man's  door.  Not  less 
striking  is  the  neighbourhood  guild  of  science, 
born,  too,  of  the  telegraph.  The  day  after  Ront- 
gen  announced  his  X  rays,  physicists  on  every 
continent  were  repeating  his  experiments — were 
applying  his  discovery  to  the  healing  of  the 
wounded  and  diseased.  Let  an  anti-toxin  for 
diphtheria,  consumption,  or  yellow  fever  be  pro- 
posed, and  a  hundred  investigators  the  world 
over  bend  their  skill  to  confirm  or  disprove,  as  if 
the  suggestor  dwelt  next  door. 

On  a  stage  less  dramatic,  or  rather  not  drama- 
tic at  all,  electricity  works  equal  good.  Its  motor 
freeing  us  from  dependence  on  the  horse  is 
spreading  our  towns  and  cities  into  their  adjoining 
country.  Field  and  garden  compete  with  airless 
streets  The  sunny  cottage  is  in  active  rivalry 
with  the  odious  tenement-house.  It  is  found 
that  transportation  within  the  gates  of  a  metro- 
polis has  an  importance  second  only  to  the  means 
of  transit  which  links  one  city  with  another. 
The  engineer  is  at  last  filling  the  gap  which  too 
long  existed  between  the  traction  of  horses  and 
that  of  steam.  In  point  of  speed,  cleanliness, 
and  comfort  such  an  electric  subway  as  that  of 
South  London  leaves  nothing  to  be  desired. 
Throughout  America  electric  roads,  at  first  sub- 
urban, are  now  fast  joining  town  to  town  and 
147 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

city  to  city,  while,  as  auxiliaries  to  steam  rail- 
roads, they  place  sparsely  settled  communities 
in  the  arterial  current  of  the  world,  and  build  up 
a  ready  market  for  the  dairyman  and  the  fruit- 
grower. In  its  saving  of  what  Mr.  Oscar  T. 
Crosby  has  called  "man-hours"  the  third-rail 
system  is  beginning  to  oust  steam  as  a  motive 
power  from  trunk-lines.  Already  shrewd  rail- 
road managers  are  granting  partnerships  to  the 
electricians  who  might  otherwise  encroach  upon 
their  dividends.  A  service  at  first  restricted  to 
passengers  has  now  extended  itself  to  the  carriage 
of  letters  and  parcels,  and  begins  to  reach  out  for 
common  freight.  We  may  soon  see  the  farmer's 
cry  for  good  roads  satisfied  by  good  electric  lines 
that  will  take  his  crops  to  market  much  more 
cheaply  and  quickly  than  horses  and  macadam 
ever  did.  In  cities,  electromobile  cabs  and  vans 
steadily  increase  in  numbers,  furthering  the  quiet 
and  cleanliness  introduced  by  the  trolley  car. 

A  word  has  been  said  about  the  blessings  which 
electricity  promises  to  country  folk,  yet  greater 
are  the  boons  it  stands  ready  to  bestow  in  the 
hives  of  population.  Until  a  few  decades  ago 
the  water-supply  of  cities  was  a  matter  not  of 
municipal  but  of  individual  enterprise;  water 
was  drawn  in  large  part  from  wells  here  and 
there,  from  lines  of  piping  laid  in  favoured  locali- 
ties, and  always  insufficient.  Many  an  epidemic 
of  typhoid  fever  was  due  to  the  contamination  of 
a  spring  by  a  cesspool  a  few  yards  away.  To-day 
a  supply  such  as  that  of  New  York  is  abundant 
148 


Electricity 

and  cheap  because  it  enters  every  house.  Let  a 
centralized  electrical  service  enjoy  a  like  privi- 
lege, and  it  will  offer  a  current  which  is  heat, 
light,  chemical  energy,  or  motive  power,  and  all 
at  a  wage  lower  than  that  of  any  other  servant. 
Unwittingly,  then,  the  electrical  engineer  is  a 
political  reformer  of  high  degree,  for  he  puts  a 
new  premium  upon  ability  and  justice  at  the 
City  Hall.  His  sole  condition  is  that  electricity 
shall  be  under  control  at  once  competent  and 
honest.  Let  us  hope  that  his  plea,  joined  to 
others  as  weighty,  may  quicken  the  spirit  of  civic 
righteousness  so  that  some  of  the  richest  fruits 
ever  borne  in  the  garden  of  science  and  art  may 
not  be  proffered  in  vain.  Flame,  the  old-time 
servant,  is  individual;  electricity,  its  successor 
and  heir,  is  collective.  Flame  sits  upon  the 
hearth  and  draws  a  family  together;  electricity, 
welling  from  a  public  source,  may  bind  into  a 
unit  all  the  families  of  a  vast  city,  because  it 
makes  the  benefit  of  each  the  interest  of  all. 

But  not  every  promise  brought  forward  in 
the  name  of  the  electrician  has  his  assent  or 
sanction.  So  much  has  been  done  by  electricity, 
and  so  much  more  is  plainly  feasible,  that  a  re- 
flection of  its  triumphs  has  gilded  many  a  baseless 
dream.  One  of  these  is  that  the  cheap  electric 
motor,  by  supply  power  at  home,  will  break  up 
the  factory  system,  and  bring  back  the  domestic 
manufacturing  of  old  days.  But  if  this  power 
cost  nothing  at  all  the  gift  would  leave  the 
factory  unassailed;  for  we  must  remember  that 
149 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

power  is  being  steadily  reduced  in  cost  from 
year  to  year,  so  that  in  many  industries  it  has 
but  a  minor  place  among  the  expenses  of  pro- 
duction. The  strength  and  profit  of  the  factory 
system  lie  in  its  assembling  a  wide  variety  of 
machines,  the  first  delivering  its  product  to  the 
second  for  another  step  toward  completion,  and 
so  on  until  a  finished  article  is  sent  to  the  ware- 
room.  It  is  this  minute  subdivision  of  labour, 
together  with  the  saving  and  efficiency  that 
inure  to  a  business  conducted  on  an  immense 
scale  under  a  single  manager,  that  bids  us  be- 
lieve that  the  factory  has  come  to  stay.  To  be 
sure,  a  weaver,  a  potter,  or  a  lens-grinder  of 
peculiar  skill  may  thrive  at  his  loom  or  wheel  at 
home;  buo  such  a  man  is  far  from  typical  in 
modern  manufacture.  Besides,  it  is  very  ques- 
tionable whether  the  lamentations  over  the  home 
industries  of  the  past  do  not  ignore  evil  con- 
comitants such  as  still  linger  in  the  home  in- 
dustries of  the  present — those  of  the  sweater's 
den,  for  example. 

This  rapid  survey  of  what  electricity  has  done 
and  may  yet  do — futile  expectation  dismissed — 
has  shown  it  the  creator  of  a  thousand  material 
resources,  the  perfector  of  that  communication 
of  things,  of  power,  of  thought,  which  in  every 
prior  stage  of  advancement  has  marked  the  suc- 
cessive lifts  of  humanity.  It  was  much  when 
the  savage  loaded  a  pack  upon  a  horse  or  an  ox 
instead  of  upon  his  own  back;  it  was  yet  more 
when  he  could  make  a  beacon-flare  give  news  or 
150 


Electricity 

warning  to  a  whole  country-side,  instead  of  being 
limited  to  the  messages  which  might  be  read 
in  his  waving  hands.  All  that  the  modern  en- 
gineer v/as  able  to  do  with  steam  for  locomotion 
is  raised  to  a  higher  plane  by  the  advent  of  his 
new  power,  while  the  long-distance  transmission 
of  electrical  energy  is  contracting  the  dimensions 
of  the  planet  to  a  scale  upon  which  its  cataracts 
.  in  the  wilderness  drive  the  spindles  and  looms  of 
the  factory  town,  or  illuminate  the  thoroughfares 
of  cities.  Beyond  and  above  all  such  services  as 
these,  electricity  is  the  corner-stone  of  physical 
generalization,  a  revealer  of  truths  impenetrable 
by  any  other  ray. 

The  subjugation  of  fire  has  done  much  in  giv- 
ing man  a  new  independence  of  nature,  a  mighty 
armoury  against  evil.  In  curtailing  the  most 
arduous  and  brutalizing  forms  of  toil,  electricity, 
that  subtler  kind  of  fire,  carries  this  emancipa- 
tion a  long  step  further,  and,  meanwhile,  be- 
stows upon  the  poor  many  a  luxury  which  but 
lately  was  the  exclusive  possession  of  the  rich. 
In  more  closely  binding  up  the  good  of  the  bee 
with  the  welfare  of  the  hive,  it  is  an  educator  and 
confirmer  of  every  social  bond.  In  so  far  as  it 
proffers  new  help  in  the  war  on  pain  and  disease 
it  strengthens  the  confidence  of  man  in  an  Order 
of  Right  and  Happiness  which  for  so  many  dreary 
ages  has  been  a  matter  rather  of  hope  than  of 
vision.  Are  we  not,  then,  justified  in  holding 
electricity  to  be  a  multiplier  of  faculty  and  in- 
sight, a  means  of  dignifying  mind  and  soul,  un- 
151 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

exampled  since  man  first  kindled  fire   and  re- 
joiced ? 

We  have  traced  how  dexterity  rose  to  fire- 
making,  how  fire-making  led  to  the  subjugation 
of  electricity.  Much  of  the  most  telling  work 
of  fire  can  be  better  done  by  its  great  successor, 
while  electricity  performs  many  tasks  possible 
only  to  itself.  Unwitting  truth  there  was  in  the 
simple  fable  of  the  captive  who  let  down  a 
spider's  film,  that  drew  up  a  thread,  which  in  turn 
brought  up  a  rope — and  freedom.  It  was  in  1800 
on  the  threshold  of  the  nineteenth  century,  that ' 
Volta  devised  the  first  electric  battery.  In  a 
hundred  years  the  force  then  liberated  has  vitally 
interwoven  itself  with  every  art  and  science, 
bearing  fruit  not  to  be  imagined  even  by  men  of 
the  stature  of  Watt,  Lavoisier,  or  Humboldt. 
Compare  this  rapid  march  of  conquest  with  the 
slow  adaptation,  through  age  after  age,  of  fire  to 
cooking,  smelting,  tempering.  Yet  it  was  partly, 
perhaps  mainly,  because  the  use  of  fire  had  drawn 
out  man's  intelligence  and  cultivated  his  skill 
that  he  was  ready  in  the  fulness  of  time  so  quickly 
to  seize  upon  electricity  and  subdue  it. 

Electricity  is  as  legitimately  the  offspring  of 
fire  as  fire  of  the  simple  knack  in  which  one 
savage  in  ten  thousand  was  richer  than  his  fel- 
lows. The  principle  of  permutation,  suggested 
in  both  victories,  interprets  not  only  how  vast 
empire  is  won  by  a  new  weapon  of  prime  dignity ; 
it  explains  why  such  empires  are  brought  under 
rule  with  ever- accelerated  pace.  Every  talent 
152 


Electricity 

only  pioneers  the  way  for  the  richer  talents  which 
are  born  from  it. 


153 


COUNT     RUMFORD     IDENTIFIES     HEAT 
WITH  MOTION. 


[Benjamin  Thompson,  who  received  the  title  of  Count 
Rumford  from  the  Elector  of  Bavaria,  was  born  in  Woburn, 
Massachusetts,  in  1753.  When  thirty-one  years  of  age 
he  settled  in  Munich,  where  he  devoted  his  remarkable 
abilities  to  the  public  service  Twelve  years  afterward 
he  removed  to  England*  in  1800  he  founded  the  Royal 
Institution  of  London,  since  famous  as  the  theatre  of  the 
labours  of  Davy,  Faraday,  Tyndall,  and  Dewar.  He  be- 
queathed to  Harvard  University  a  fund  to  endow  a  pro- 
fessorship of  the  application  of  science  to  the  art  of  living: 
he  instituted  a  prize  to  be  awarded  by  the  American  Aca- 
demy of  Sciences  for  the  most  important  discoveries  and 
improvements  relating  to  heat  and  light .  In  1 804  he  married 
the  widow  of  the  illustrious  chemist  Lavoisier:  he  died  in 
1814.  Count  Rumford  on  January  25,  1798,  read  a  paper 
before  the  Royal  Society  entitled  "An  Enquiry  Concerning 
the  Source  of  Heat  Which  Is  Excited  by  Friction."  The 
experiments  therein  detailed  proved  that  heat  is  identical 
with  motion,  as  against  the  notion  that  heat  is  matter.  HD 
thus  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the  modern  theory  that  heat 
light,  electricity,  magnetism,  chemical  action,  and  all  other 
forms  of  energy  are  in  essence  motion,  are  convertible  into 
one  another,  and  as  motion  are  indestructible.  The  follow- 
ing abstract  of  Count  Rumford's  paper  is  taken  from  "Heat 
as  a  Mode  of  Motion,"  by  Professor  John  Tyndall,  published 
by  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York.  This  work  and  "The 
Correlation  and  Conservation  of  Forces,"  edited  by  Dr. 
E.  L.  Youmans,  published  by  the  same  house,  will  serve  as 
a  capital  introduction  to  the  modern  theory  that  energy 
is  motion  which,  however  varied  in  its  forms,  is  changeless 
in  its  quantity  [j 

155 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

BEING  engaged  in  superintending  the  boring 
of  cannon  in  the  workshops  of  the  military  arsenal 
at  Munich,  Count  Rumford  was  struck  with  the 
very  considerable  degree  of  heat  which  a  brass 
gun  acquires,  in  a  short  time,  in  being  bored, 
and  with  the  still  more  intense  heat  (much 
greater  than  that  of  boiling  water)  of  the  metallic 
chips  separated  from  it  by  the  borer,  he  pro- 
posed to  himself  the  following  questions: 

"Whence  comes  the  heat  actually  produced 
in  the  mechanical  operations  above  mentioned? 

"Is  it  furnished  by  the  metallic  chips  which 
are  separated  from  the  metal  ? " 

If  this  were  the  case,  then  the  capacity  for  heat 
of  the  parts  of  the  metal  so  reduced  to  chips 
ought  not  only  to  be  changed,  but  the  change 
undergone  by  them  should  be  sufficiently  great 
to  account  for  all  the  heat  produced.  No  such 
change,  however,  had  taken  place,  for  the  chips 
were  found  to  have  the  same  capacity  as  slices 
of  the  same  metal  cut  by  a  fine  saw,  where  heat- 
ing was  avoided.  Hence,  it  is  evident,  that  the 
heat  produced  could  not  possibly  have  been 
furnished  at  the  expense  of  the  latent  heat  of  the 
metallic  chips.  Rumford  describes  these  experi- 
ments at  length,  and* they  are  conclusive. 

He  then  designed  a  cylinder  for  the  express 
purpose  of  generating  heat  by  friction,  by  having 
a  blunt  borer  forced  against  its  solid  bottom, 
while  the  cylinder  was  turned  around  its  axis  by 
the  force  of  horses.  To  measure  the  heat  de- 
veloped, a  small  round  hole  was  bored  in  the 
156 


Count    Rumford   Identifies  Heat 

cylinder  for  the  purpose  of  introducing  a  small 
mercurial  thermometer.  The  weight  of  the 
cylinder  was  113.13  pounds  avoirdupois. 

The  borer  was  a  flat  piece  of  hardened  steel, 
o .  63  of  an  inch  thick,  four  inches  long,  and  nearly 
as  wide  as  the  cavity  of  the  bore  of  the  cylinder, 
namely,  three  and  one-half  inches.  The  area 
of  the  surface  by  which  its  end  was  in  contact 
with  the  bottom  of  the  bore  was  nearly  two  and 
one-half  inches.  At  the  beginning  of  the  experi- 
ment the  temperature  of  the  air  in  the  shade, 
and  also  that  of  the  cylinder,  was  60°  Fahr.  At 
the  end  of  thirty  minutes,  and  after  the  cylinder 
had  made  960  revolutions  round  its  axis,  the 
temperature  was  found  to  be  130°. 

Having  taken  away  the  borer,  he  now  removed 
the  metallic  dust,  or  rather  scaly  matter,  which 
had  been  detached  from  the  bottom  of  the  cylin- 
der by  the  blunt  steel  borer,  and  found  its  weight 
to  be  837  grains  troy.  "Is  it  possible,"  he  ex- 
claims, "that  the  very  considerable  quantity  of 
heat  produced  in  this  expemnent — a  quantity 
which  actually  raised  the  temperature  ,of  above 
113  pounds  of  gun-metal  at  least  70°  of  Fahren- 
heit's thermometer — could  have  been  furnished 
by  so  inconsiderable  a  quantity  of  metallic  dust 
and  this  merely  in  consequence  of  a  change  in  its 
capacity  of  heat?" 

"  But  without  insisting  on  the  improbability  of 
this  supposition,  we  have  only  to  recollect  that 
from  the  results  of  actual  and  decisive  ex- 
periments, made  for  the  express  purpose  of  as- 
157 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

certaining  that  fact,  the  capacity  for  heat  for 
the  metal  of  which  great  guns  are  cast  is  not 
sensibly  changed  by  being  reduced  to  the  form  of 
metallic  chips,  and  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
reason  to  think  that  it  can  be  much  changed, 
if  it  be  changed  at  all,  in  being  reduced  to 
much  smaller  pieces  by  a  borer  which  is  less 
sharp." 

He  next  surrounded  his  cylinder  by  an  oblong 
deal-box,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cylinder 
could  turn  water-tight  in  the  centre  of  the  box, 
while  the  borer  was  pressed  against  the  bottom 
of  the  cylinder.  The  box  was  filled  with  water 
until  the  entire  cylinder  was  covered,  and  then 
the  apparatus  was  set  in  action.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  water  on  commencing  was  60°. 

"The  result  of  this  beautiful  experiment," 
writes  Rumford,  "was  very  striking,  and  the 
pleasure  it  afforded  me  amply  repaid  me  for  all 
the  trouble  I  had  had  in  contriving  and  arrang- 
ing the  complicated  machinery  used  in  making  it. 
The  cylinder  had  b^en  in  motion  but  a  short  time, 
when  I  perceived,  by  putting  my  hand  into  the 
water,  and  touching  the  outside  of  the  cylinder, 
that  heat  was  generated. 

"At  the  end  of  one  hour  the  fluid,  which 
weighed  18.77  pounds,  or  two  and  one-half 
gallons,  had  its  temperature  raised  forty-seven 
degrees,  being  now  107°. 

"In   thirty   minutes  more,   or   one  hour  and 
thirty  minutes  after  the  machinery  had  been  set 
in  motion,  the  heat  of  the  water  was  142°. 
158 


Count   Rumford   Identifies  Heat 

"  At  the  end  of  two  hours  from  the  beginning, 
the  temperature  was  178°. 

"  At  two  hours  and  twenty  minutes  it  was  200°, 
and  at  two  hours  and  thirty  minutes  it  actually 
boiled  /" 

"It  would  be  difficult  to  describe  the  surprise 
and  astonishment  expressed  in  the  countenances 
of  the  bystanders  on  seeing  so  large  a  quantity 
of  water  heated,  and  actually  made  to  boil, 
without  any  fire.  Though  there  was  nothing 
that  could  be  considered  very  surprising  in  this 
matter,  yet  I  acknowledge  fairly  that  it  afforded 
me  a  degree  of  childish  pleasure  which,  were  I 
ambitious  of  the  reputation  of  a  grave  philoso- 
pher, I  ought  most  certainly  rather  to  hide  than 
to  discover. " 

He  then  carefully  estimates  the  quantity  of 
heat  possessed  by  each  portion  of  his  apparatus 
at  the  conclusion  of  the  experiment,  and,  adding 
all  together,  finds  a  total  sufficient  to  raise  26.58 
pounds  of  ice-cold  water  to  its  boiling  point,  or 
through  1 80°  Fahrenheit.  By  careful  calcula- 
tion, he  finds  this  heat  equal  to  that  given  out  by 
the  combustion  of  2,303.8  grains  (equal  to  four 
and  eight-tenths  ounces  troy)  of  wax. 

He  then  determines  the  "celerity"  with  which 
the  heat  was  generated;  summing  up  thus: 
"From  the  results  of  these  computations,  it  ap- 
pears that  the  quantity  of  heat  produced  equably, 
or  in  a  continuous  stream,  if  I  may  use  the  ex- 
pression, by  the  friction  of  the  blunt  steel  borer 
against  the  bottom  of  the  hollow  metallic  cylin- 
159 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

der,  was  greater  than  that  produced  in  the  com- 
bustion of  nine  wax-candles,  each  three-quarters 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  all  burning  together  with 
clear  bright  flames. 

"One  horse  would  have  been  equal  to  the 
work  performed,  though  two  were  actually  em- 
ployed. Heat  may  thus  be  produced  merely 
by  the  strength  of  a  horse,  and,  in  a  case  of  ne- 
cessity, this  heat  might  be  used  in  cooking 
victuals.  But  no  circumstances  could  be  im- 
agined in  which  this  method  of  procuring  heat 
would  be  advantageous,  for  more  heat  might 
be  obtained  by  using  the  fodder  necessary 
for  the  support  of  a  horse  as  fuel.  " 

[This  is  an  extremely  significant  passage,  in- 
timating as  it  does,  that  Rumford  saw  clearly 
that  the  force  of  animals  was  derived  from  the 
food;  no  creation  of  force  taking  place  in  the 
animal  body.] 

"By  meditating  on  the  results  of  all  these  ex- 
periments, we  are  naturally  brought  to  that  great 
question  which  has  so  often  been  the  subject  of 
speculation  among  philosophers,  namely,  What 
is  heat — is  there  any  such  thing  as  an  igneous 
fluid  ?  Is  there  anything  that,  with  propriety, 
can  be  called  caloric  ? 

"We  have  seen  that  a  very  considerable  quan- 
tity of  heat  may  be  excited  by  the  friction  of 
two  metallic  surfaces,  and  given  off  in  a  constant 
stream  or  flux  in  all  directions,  without  inter- 
ruption or  intermission,  and  without  any  signs  of 
diminution  or  exhaustion.  In  reasoning  on  this 
160 


Count   Rumford   Identifies  Heat 

subject  we  must  not  forget  that  most  remarkable 
circumstance,  that  the  source  of  the  heat  gener- 
ated by  friction  in  these  experiments  appeared 
evidently  to  be  inexhaustible.  [The  italics  are 
Rumford's.]  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add,  that 
anything  which  any  insulated  body  or  system  of 
bodies  can  continue  to  furnish  without  limitation 
cannot  possibly  be  a  material,  substance;  and  it 
appears  to  me  to  be  extremely  difficult,  if  not 
quite  impossible,  to  form  any  distinct  idea  of  any- 
thing capable  of  being  excited  and  communicated 
in  those  experiments,  except  it  be  MOTION." 

When  the  history  of  the  dynamical  theory 
of  heat  is  written,  the  man  who,  in  opposition  to 
the  scientific  belief  of  his  time,  could  experiment 
and  reason  upon  experiment,  as  Rumford  did 
in  the  investigation  here  referred  to,  cannot  be 
lightly  passed  over.  Hardly  anything  mora 
powerful  against  the  materiality  of  heat  has  been 
since  adduced,  hardly  anything  more  conclusive 
in  the  way  of  establishing  that  heat  is,  what 
Rumford  considered  it  to  be,  Motion. 


161 


VICTORY   OF   THE    "ROCKET"    LOCOMO- 
TIVE. 

[Part  of  Chapter  XII.  Part  II.  of  "The  Life  of  George 
Stephenson  and  of  His  Son,  Robert  Stephenson,"  by 
Samuel  Smiles  New  York,  Harper  &  Brothers.  i868.fl 

THE  works  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway  were  now  approaching  completion. 
But,  strange  to  say,  the  directors  had  not  yet 
decided  as  to  the  tractive  power  to  be  employed 
in  working  the  line  when  open  for  traffic.  The 
differences  of  opinion  among  them  were  so  great 
as  apparently  to  be  irreconcilable.  It  was 
necessary,  however,  that  they  should  come  to 
some  decision  without  further  loss  of  time,  and 
many  board  meetings  were  accordingly  held  to 
discuss  the  subject.  The  old-fashioned  and 
well-tried  system  of  horse-haulage  was  not  with- 
out its  advocates;  but,  looking  at  the  large 
amount  of  traffic  which  there  was  to  be  con- 
veyed, and  at  the  probable  delay  in  the  transit 
from  station  to  station  if  this  method  were 
adopted,  the  directors,  after  a  visit  made  by  them 
to  the  Northumberland  and  Durham  railways 
in  1828,  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  employ- 
ment of  horse-power  was  inadmissible. 

Fixed  engines  had  many  advocates;  the  loco- 
motive very  few:  it  stood  as  yet   almost  in  a 
minority  of  one — George  Stephenson. 
163 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

In  the  meantime  the  discussion  proceeded  as 
to  the  kind  of  power  to  be  permanently  employed 
for  the  working  of  the  railway.  The  directors 
were  inundated  with  schemes  of  all  sorts  for 
facilitating  locomotion.  The  projectors  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  America  seemed  to  be  let  loose 
upon  them.  There  were  plans  for  working  the 
waggons  along  the  line  by  water-power.  Some 
proposed  hydrogen,  and  others  carbonic  acid  gas. 
Atmospheric  pressure  had  its  eager  advocates. 
And  various  kinds  of  fixed  and  locomotive  steam- 
power  were  suggested.  Thomas  Gray  urged 
his  plan  of  a  greased  road  with  cog-rails;  and 
Messrs.  Vignolles  and  Ericsson  recommended  the 
adoption  of  a  central  friction-rail,  against  which 
two  horizontal  rollers  under  the  locomotive, 
pressing  upon  the  sides  of  this  rail,  were  to  afford 
the  means  of  ascending  the  inclined  planes.  .  . 

The  two  best  practical  engineers  of  the  day 
concurred  in  reporting  substantially  in  favour 
of  the  employment  of  fixed  engines.  Not  a 
single  professional  man  of  eminence  could  be 
found  to  coincide  with  the  engineer  of  the  railway 
in  his  preference  for  locomotive  over  fixed  engine 
power.  He  had  scarcely  a  supporter,  and  the 
locomotive  system  seemed  on  the  eve  of  being 
abandoned.  Still  he  did  not  despair.  With  the 
profession  against  him,  and  public  opinion  against 
him — for  the  most  frightful  stories  went  abroad 
respecting  the  dangers,  the  unsightliness,  and 
the  nuisance  which  the  locomotive  would  create 
— 'Stephenson  held  to  his  purpose.  Even  in 
164 


Victory  of  the  "  Rocket  "  Locomotive 

this,  apparently  the  darkest  hour  of  the  locomo- 
tive, he  did  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  locomo- 
tive railroads  would,  before  many  years  had 
passed,  be  "the  great  highways  of  the  world.  " 

He  urged  his  views  upon  the  directors  in  all 
ways,  in  season,  and,  as  some  of  them  thought, 
out  of  season.  He  pointed  out  the  greater  con- 
venience of  locomotive  power  for  the  purposes  of 
a  public  highway,  likening  it  to  a  series  of  short 
unconnected  chains,  any  one  of  which  could  be 
removed  and  another  substituted  without  inter- 
ruption to  the  traffic;  whereas  the  fixed-engine 
system  might  be  regarded  in  the  light  of  a  con- 
tinuous chain  extending  between  the- two  termini, 
the  failure  of  any  link  of  which  would  derange 
the  whole.  But  the  fixed  engine  party  was  very 
strong  at  the  board,  and,  led  by  Mr.  Cropper, 
they  urged  the  propriety  of  forthwith  adopting 
the  report  of  Messrs.  Walker  and  Rastrick.  Mr. 
Sandars  and  Mr.  William  Rathbone,  on  the  other 
hand,  desired  that  a  fair  trial  should  be  given  to 
the  locomotive;  and  they  with  reason  objected 
to  the  expenditure  of  the  large  capital  necessary 
to  construct  the  proposed  engine-houses,  with 
their  fixed  engines,  ropes,  and  machinery,  until 
they  had  tested  the  powers  of  the  Ipcomotive 
as  recommended  by  their  own  engineer.  George 
Stephenson  continued  to  urge  upon  them  that 
the  locomotive  was  yet  capable  of  great  im- 
provements, if  proper  inducements  were  held  out 
to  inventors  and  machinists  to  make  them; 
and  he  pledged  himself  that,  if  time  were  given 
165 


Masterpieces    of   Science 

him,  he  would  construct  an  engine  that  should 
satisfy  their  requirements,  and  prove  itself  capa- 
ble of  working  heavy  loads  along  the  railway 
with  speed,  regularity,  and  safety.  At  length, 
influenced  by  his  persistent  earnestness  not  less 
than  by  his  arguments,  the  directors,  at  the  sup- 
gestion  of  Mr.  Harrison,  determined  to  offer  a 
prize  of  £500  for  the  best  locomotive  engine, 
which,  on  a  certain  day,  should  be  produced  on 
the  railway,  and  perform  certain  specified  con- 
ditions in  the  most  satisfactory  manner.* 

The  requirements  of  the  directors  as  to  speed 
were  not  excessive.  All  that  they  asked  for  was 
that  ten  miles  an  hour  should  be  maintained. 
Perhaps  they  had  in  mind  the  animadversions  of 
the  Quarterly  Review  on  the  absurdity  of  travel- 

*  The   conditions   were   these: 

1.  The  engine  must  effectually  consume  its  own  smoke. 

2.  The  engine,  if  of  six  tons'  weight,  must  be  able  to  draw 
after  it,   day  by  day,  twenty  tons'  weight   (including  the 
tender  and  water- tank)  at  ten  miles  an  hour,  with  a  pressure 
of  steam  on  the  boiler  not  exceeding  fifty  pounds  to  the 
square  inch. 

3.  The   boiler  must   have   two   safety-valves,    neither   of 
which  must  be  fastened  dowr,  and  one  of  them  be  com- 
pletely out  of  the  control  of  the  engine-man. 

4.  The  engine  and  boiler  must  be  supported  on  springs, 
and  rest  on  six  wheels,  the  height  of  the  whole  not  exceeding 
fifteen  feet  to  the  top  of  the  chimney. 

5.  The  engine,  with  water,  must  not  weigh  more  than 
six  tons;  but  an  engine  of  less  weight  would  be  preferred 
on  its  drawing  a  proportionate  load  behind  it;  if  of  only 
four  and  a  half  tons,  then  it  might  be  put  on  only  four  wheels. 

The  company  will  be  at  liberty  to  test  the  boiler,  etc.,  by  a 
pressure  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  the  square  inch. 

166 


Victory   of  the  "  Rocket  "  Locomotive 

ling  at  a  greater  velocity,  and  also  the  remarks 
published  by  Mr.  Nicholas  Wood,  whom  they 
selected  to  be  one  of  the  judges  of  the  competi- 
tion, in  conjunction  with  Mr.  Rastrick,  of  Stour- 
bridge,  and  Mr.  Kennedy,  of  Manchester. 

It  was  now  felt  that  the  fate  of  railways  in  a 
great  measure  depended  upon  the  issue  of  this 
appeal  to  the  mechanical  genius  of  England. 
When  the  advertisement  of  the  prize  for  the  best 
locomotive  was  published,  scientific  men  began 
more  particularly  to  direct  their  attention  to  the 
new  power  which  was  thus  struggling  into  ex- 
istence. In  the  meantime  public  opinion  on 
the  subject  of  railway  working  remained  sus- 
pended, and  the  progress  of  the  undertaking 
was  watched  with  intense  interest. 

During  the  progress  of  this  important  contro- 
versyjwith  reference  to  the  kind  of  power  to  be  em- 

6.  A  mercurial  gauge   must  be  affixed  to  the  machine, 
showing  the  steam  pressure  above  forty-five    pounds    per 
square  inch. 

7.  The  engine  must  be  delivered,  complete  and  ready  for 
trial,  at  the  Liverpool  end  of  the  railway,  not  later  than  the 
ist  of  October,  1829. 

8.  The  price  of  the  engine  must  not  exceed  ^550. 

Many  persons  of  influence  declared  the  conditions  pub- 
lished by  the  directors  of  the  railway  chimerical  in  the  ex- 
treme One  gentleman  of  some  eminence  in  Liverpool, 
Mr.  P.  Ewart,  who  afterward  filled  the  office  of  Government 
Inspector  of  Post-office  Steam  Packets,  declared  that  only 
a  parcel  of  charlatans  would  ever  have  issued  such  a  set  of 
conditions;  that  it  had  been  proved  to  be  impossible  to  make 
a  locomotive  engine  go  at  ten  miles  an  hour;  but  if  it  ever 
was  done,  he  would  undertake  to  eat  a  stewed  engine-wheel 
for  his  breakfast? 

167 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

ployed  in  working  the  railway,  George  Stephen- 
son  was  in  constant  communication  with  his  son 
Robert,  who  made  frequent  visits  to  Liverpool 
for  the  purpose  of  assisting  his  father  in  the 
preparation  of  his  reports  to  the  board  on  the 
subject.  Mr.  Swanwick  remembers  the  vivid  in- 
terest of  the  evening  discussions  which  then  took 
place  between  father  and  son  as  to  the  best  mode 
of  increasing  the  powers  and  perfecting  the 
mechanism  of  the  locomotive.  He  wondered 
at  their  quick  perception  and  rapid  judgment  on 
each  other's  suggestions;  at  the  mechanical  diffi- 
culties which  they  anticipated  and  provided  for 
in  the  practical  arrangement  of  the  machine ;  and 
he  speaks  of  these  evenings  as  most  interesting 
displays  of  two  actively  ingenious  and  able  minds 
stimulating  each  other  to  feats  of  mechanical 
invention,  by  which  it  was  ordained  that  the 
locomotive  engine  should  become  what  it  now  is. 
These  discussions  became  more  frequent,  and 
still  more  interesting,  after  the  public  prize  had 
been  offered  for  the  best  locomotive  by  the 
directors  of  the  railway,  and  the  working  plans 
of  the  engine  which  they  proposed  to  construct 
had  to  be  settled. 

One  of  the  most  important  considerations  in 
the  new  engine  was  the  arrangement  of  the  boiler, 
and  the  extension  of  its  heating  surface  to  enable 
steam  enough  to  be  raised  rapidly  and  continu- 
ously for  the  purpose  of  maintaining  high  rates  of 
speed — the  effect  of  high  pressure  engines  being 
ascertained  to  depend  mainly  upon  the  quantity 
168 


Victory  of  the  "  Rocket "  Locomotive 

of  steam  which  the  boiler  can  generate,  and 
upon  its  degree  of  elasticity  when  produced. 
The  quantity  of  steam  so  generated,  it  will  be 
obvious,  must  chiefly  depend  upon  the  quantity 
of  fuel  consumed  in  the  f  nace,  and,  by  neces- 
sary consequence,  upon  the  high  rate  of  tempera- 
ture maintained  there. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  in  Stephenson's 
first  Killingworth  engines  he  invited  and  applied 
the  ingenious  method  of  stimulating  combustion 
in  the  furnace  by  throwing  the  waste  steam  into 
the  chimney  after  performing  its  office  in  the 
cylinders,  thereby  accelerating  the  ascent  of  the 
current  of  air,  greatly  increasing  the  draught, 
and  consequently  the  temperature  of  the  fire. 
This  plan  was  adopted  by  him,  as  we  have  seen, 
as  early  as  1815,  and  it  was  so  successful  that  he 
himself  attributed  to  it  the  greater  economy  of 
the  locomotive  as  compared  vvith  horse-power. 
Hence  the  continuance  of  iti  use  upon  the  Kil- 
lingworth Railway. 

Though  the  adoption  of  the  steam  blast  greatly 
quickened  combustion  and  contributed  to  the 
rapid  production  of  high-pressure  steam,  the 
limited  amount  of  heating  surface  presented  to 
the  fire  was  still  felt  to  be  an  obstacle  to  the  com- 
plete success  of  the  locomotive  engine.  Mr. 
Stephenson  endeavoured  to  overcome  this  by 
lengthening  the  boilers  and  increasing  the  sur- 
face presented  by  the  flue-tubes.  The  "Lanca- 
shire Witch, "  which  he  built  for  the  Bolton  and 
Leigh  Railway,  and  used  in  forming  the  Liver- 
169 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

pool  and  Manchester  Railway  embankments,  was 
constructed  with  a  double  tube,  each  of  which 
contained  a  fire,  and  passed  longitudinally 
through  the  boiler.  But  this  arrangement 
necessarily  led  to  a  considerable  increase  in  the 
weight  of  those  engines,  which  amounted  to 
about  twelve  tons  each;  and  as  six  tons  was 
the  limit  allowed  for  engines  admitted  to  the 
Liverpool  competition,  it  was  clear  that  the 
time  was  come  when  the  Killingworth  engine 
must  undergo  a  farther  important  modification. 

For  many  years  previous  to  this  period,  in- 
genious mechanics  had  been  engaged  in  attempt- 
ing to  solve  the  problem  of  the  best  and  most 
economical  boiler  for  the  production  of  high- 
pressure  steam. 

The  use  of  tubes  in  boilers  for  increasing  the 
heating  surface  had  long  been  known.  As  early 
as  1780,  Matthew  Boulton  employed  copper 
tubes  longitudinally  in  the  boiler  of  the  Wheal 
Busy  engine  in  Cornwall — the  fire  passing 
through  the  tubes — and  it  was  found  that  the 
production  of  steam  was  thereby  considerably 
increased.  The  use  of  tubular  boilers  afterwards 
became  common  in  Cornwall.  In  1803,  Woolf, 
the  Cornish  engineer,  patented  a  boiler  with 
tubes,  with  the  same  object  of  increasing  the 
heating  surface.  The  water  was  inside  the  tubes, 
and  the  fire  of  the  boiler  outside.  Similar  ex- 
pedients were  proposed  by  other  inventors.  In 
1815  Trevithick  invented  his  light  high-pressure 
boiler  for  portable  purposes,  in  which,  to  "  expose 
.70 


Victory  of  the  "Rocket"  Locomotive 

a  large  surface  to  the  fire, "  he  constructed  the 
boiler  of  a  number  of  small  perpendicular  tubes 
"opening  into  a  common  reservoir  at  the  top." 
In  1823  W.  H.  James  contrived  a  boiler  com- 
posed of  a  series  of  annular  wrought-iron  tubes, 
placed  side  by  side  and  bolted  together,  so  as  to 
form  by  their  union  a  long  cylindrical  boiler,  in 
the  centre  of  which,  at  the  end,  the  fireplace  was 
situated.  The  fire  played  round  the  tubes,  which 
contained  the  water.  In  1826  James  Neville 
took  out  a  patent  for  a  boiler  with  vertical  tubes 
surrounded  by  the  water,  through  which  the 
heated  air  of  the  furnace  passed,  explaining  also 
in  his  specification  that  the  tubes  might  be  hori- 
zontal or  inclined,  according  to  circumstances. 
Mr.  Goldsworthy,  the  persevering  adaptor  of 
steam-carriages  to  travelling  on  common  roads, 
applied  the  tubular  principle  in  the  boiler  of  his 
engine,  in  which  the  steam  was  generated  within 
the  tubes;  while  the  boiler  invented  by  Messrs. 
Summer  and  Ogle  for  their  turnpike-road  steam- 
carriage  consisted  of  a  series  of  tubes  placed 
vertically  over  the  furnace,  through  which  the 
heated  air  passed  before  reaching  the  chimney. 
About  the  same  time  George  Stephenson  was 
trying  the  effect  of  introducing  small  tubes  in  the 
boilers  of  his  locomotives,  with  the  object  of  in- 
creasing their  evaporative  power.  Thus,  in  1829, 
he  sent  to  France  two  engines  constructed  at 
the  Newcastle  works  for  the  Lyons  and  St. 
Etienne  Railway,  in  the  boilers  of  which  tubes 
were  placed  containing  water.  The  heating  sur- 
171 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

face  was  thus  considerably  increased ;  but  the  ex- 
pedient was  not  successful,  for  the  tubes,  becom- 
ing furred  with  deposit,  shortly  burned  out  and 
were  removed.  It  was  then  that  M.  Seguin,  the 
engineer  of  the  railway,  pursuing  the  same  idea, 
is  said  to  have  adopted  his  plan  of  employing 
horizontal  tubes  through  which  the  heated  air 
passed  in  streamlets,  and  for  which  he  took  out  a 
French  patent. 

In  the  meantime  Mr.  Henry  Booth,  secretary 
to  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  Railway,  whose 
attention  had  been  directed  to  the  subject  on  the 
prize  being  offered  for  the  best  locomotive  to 
work  that  line,  proposed  the  same  method,  which, 
unknown  to  him,  Matthew  Boulton  had  em- 
ployed but  not  patented,  in  1780,  and  James 
Neville  had  patented,  but  not  employed,  in  1826; 
and  it  was  carried  into  effect  by  Robert  Stephen- 
'  son  in  the  construction  of  the  "Rocket,"  which 
won  the  prize  at  Rainhill  in  October,  1829. 
The  following  is  Mr.  Booth's  account  in  a  letter 
to  the  author: 

"I  was  in  almost  daily  communication  with 
Mr.  Stephenson  at  the  time,  and  I  was  not  aware 
that  he  had  any  intention  of  competing  for  the 
prize  till  I  communicated  to  him  my  scheme  of  a 
multitubular  boiler.  This  new  plan  of  boiler 
comprised  the  introduction  of  numerous  small 
tubes,  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter,  and  less 
than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  through  which 
to  carry  the  fire  instead  of  a  single  tube  or  flue 
eighteen  inches  in  diameter,  and  about  half  an 
172 


Victory  of  the  "  Rocket "  Locomotive 

inch  thick,  by  which  plan  we  not  only  obtain  a 
very  much  larger  heating  surface,  but  the  heat- 
ing surface  is  much  more  effective,  as  there  in- 
tervenes between  the  fire  and  the  water  only  a 
thin  sheet  of  copper  or  brass,  not  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  thick,  instead  of  a  plate  of  iron  of  four  times 
the  stibstance,  as  well  as  an  inferior  conductor 
of  heat. 

"When  the  conditions  of  trial  were  published, 
I  communicated  my  multitubular  plan  to  Mr. 
Stephenson,  and  proposed  to  him  that  we  should 
jointly  construct  an  engine  and  compete  for  the 
prize.  Mr.  Stephenson  approved  the  plan,  and 
agreed  to  my  proposal.  He  settled  the  mode  in 
which  the  fire-box  and  tubes  were  to  be  mutually 
arranged  and  connected,  and  the  engine  was  con- 
structed at  the  works  of  Messrs.  Robert  Stephen- 
son  £  Co.,  Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

44 1  am  ignorant  of  M.  Seguin's  proceedings  in 
France,  but  I  claim  to  be  the  inventor  in  Eng- 
land, and  feel  warranted  in  stating,  without 
reservation,  that  until  I  named  my  plan  to  Mr. 
Stephenson,  with  a  view  to  compete  for  the  prize 
at  Rainhill,  it  had  not  been  tried,  and  was  not 
known  in  this  country. " 

From  the  well-known  high  character  of  Mr. 
Booth,  we  believe  his  statement  to  be  made  in 
perfect  good  faith,  and  that  he  was  as  much  in 
ignorance  of  the  plan  patented  by  Neville  as  he 
was  of  that  of  Seguin.  As  we  have  seen,  from 
the  many  plans  of  tubular  boilers  invented  dur- 
ing the  preceding  thirty  years,  the  idea  was  not 
173 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

by  any  means  new;  and  we  believe  Mr.  Booth  to 
be  entitled  to  the  merit  of  inventing  the  method 
by  which  the  multitubular  principle  was  so 
effectually  applied  in  the  construction  of  the 
famous  "Rocket"  engine. 

The  principal  circumstances  connected  with 
the  construction  of  the  "Rocket,"  as  described 
by  Robert  Stephenson  to  the  author,  may  be 
briefly  stated.  The  tubular  principle  was  adopted 
in  a  more  complete  manner  than  had  yet  been 
attempted.  Twenty-five  copper  tubes,  each  three 
inches  in  diameter,  extended  from  one  end  of 
the  boiler  to  the  other,  the  heated  air  passing 
through  them  on  its  way  to  the  chimney;  and 
the  tubes  being  surrounded  by  the  water  of  the 
boiler,  it  will  be  obvious  that  a  large  extension 
of  the  heating  surface  was  thus  effectually  se- 
cured. The  principal  difficulty  was  in  fitting 
the  copper  tubes  in  the  boiler  ends  so  as  to  pre- 
vent leakage.  They  were  manufactured  by  a 
Newcastle  coppersmith,  and  soldered  to  brass 
screws  which  were  screwed  into  the  boiler  ends, 
standing  cut  in  great  knobs.  When  the  tubes 
were  thus  fitted,  and  the  boiler  was  filled  with 
water,  hydraulic  pressure  was  applied;  but  the 
water  squirted  out  at  every  joint,  and  the  factory 
floor  was  soon  flooded.  •  Robert  went  home  in 
despair;  and  in  the  first  moment  of  grief  he  wrote 
to  his  father  that  the  whole  thing  was  a  failure. 
By  return  of  post  came  a  letter  from  his  father, 
telling  him  that  despair  was  not  to  be  thought  of 
— that  he  must  "try  again;"  and  he  suggested 
174 


Victory  of  the  "Rocket"  Locomotive 

a  mode  of  overcoming  the  difficulty,  which,  his 
son  had  already  anticipated  and  proceeded  to 
adopt.  It  was,  to  bore  clean  holes  in  the  boiler 
ends,  fit  in  the  smooth  copper  tubes  as  tightly 
as  possible,  solder  up,  and  then  raise  the  steam. 
This  plan  succeeded  perfectly,  the  expansion  of 
the  copper  tubes  completely  filling  up  all  inter- 
stices, and  producing  a  perfectly  water-tight 
boiler,  capable  of  withstanding  extreme  external 
pressure. 

The  mode  of  employing  the  steam-blast  for 
the  purpose  of  increasing  the  draught  in  the 
chimney  was  also  the  subject  of  numerous  ex- 
periments. When  the  engine  was  first  tried,  it 
was  thought  that  the  blast  in  the  chimney  was 
not  sufficiently  strong  for  the  purpose  of  keeping 
up  the  intensity  of  fire  in  the  furnace,  so  as  to 
produce  high-pressure  steam  with  the  required 
velocity.  The  expedient  was  therefore  adopted 
of  hammering  the  copper  tubes  at  the  point  at 
which  they  entered  the  chimney,  whereby  the 
blast  was  considerably  sharpened;  and  on  a  far- 
ther trial  it  was  found  that  the  draught  was  in- 
creased to  such  an  extent  as  to  enable  abundance 
of  steam  to  be  raised.  The  rationale  of  the 
blast  may  be  simply  explained  by  referring  to  the 
effect  of  contracting  the  pipe  of  a  water-hose, 
by  which  the  force  of  the  jet  of  water  is  pro- 
portionately increased.  Widen  the  nozzle  of 
the  pipe,  and  the  jet  is  in  like  manner  diminished. 
So  it  is  with  the  steam-blast  in  the  chimney  of 
the  locomotive. 

175 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

Doubts  were,  however,  expressed  whether  the 
greater  draught  obtained  by  the  contraction  of 
the  blast-pipe  was  not  counterbalanced  in  some 
degree  by  the  negative  pressure  upon  the  piston. 
Hence  a  series  of  experiments  was  made  with 
pipes  of  different  diameters,  and  their  efficiency 
was  tested  by  the  amount  of  vacuum  that  was 
produced  in  the  smoke-box.  The  degree  of 
rarefaction  was  determined  by  a  glass  tube  fixed 
to  the  bottom  of  the  smoke-box  and  descending 
into  a  bucket  of  water,  the  tube  being  open  at 
both  ends.  As  the  rarefaction  took  place,  the 
water  would,  of  course,  rise  in  the  tube,  and  the 
height  to  which  it  rose  above  the  surface  of  the 
water  in  the  bucket  was  made  the  measure  of  the 
amount  of  rarefaction.  These  experiments 
proved  that  a  considerable  increase  of  draught 
was  obtained  by  the  contraction  of  the  orifice; 
accordingly,  the  two  blast-pipes  opening  from 
the  cylinders  into  either  side  of  the  "Rocket" 
chimney,  and  turned  up  within  it,  were  con- 
tracted slightly  below  the  area  of  the  steam- 
ports,  and  before  the  engine  left  the  factory,  the 
water  rose  in  the  glass  tube  three  inches  above 
the  water  in  the  bucket. 

The  other  arrangements  of  the  "  Rocket "  were 
briefly  these:  the  boiler  was  cylindrical,  with  flat 
ends,  six  feet  in  length,  and  three  feet  four  inches 
in  diameter.  The  upper  half  of  the  boiler  was 
used  as  a  reservoir  for  the  steam,  the  lower  half 
being  filled  with  water.  Through  the  lower  part 
the  copper  tubes  extended,  being  open  to  the 


Victory  of  the  "  Rocket "  Locomotive 

fire-box  at  one  end,  and  to  the  chimney  at  the 
other.  The  fire-box,  or  furnace,  two  feet  wide 
and  three  feet  high,  was  attached  immediately 
behind  the  boiler,  and  was  also  surrounded  with 
water.  The  cylinders  of  the  engine  were  placed 
on  each  side  of  the  boiler,  in  an  oblique  position, 
one  end  being  nearly  level  with  the  top  of  the 
boiler  at  its  after  end,  and  the  other  pointing 
toward  the  centre  of  the  foremost  or  driving  pair 
of  wheels,  with  which  the  connection  was  directly 
made  from  the  piston-rod  to  a  pin  on  the  outside 
of  the  wheel.  The  engine,  together  with  its  load 
of  water,  weighed  only  four  tons  and  a  quarter; 
and  it  was  supported  on  four  wheels,  not  coupled. 
The  tender  was  four-wheeled,  and  similar  in 
shape  to  a  waggon — the  foremost  part  holding  the 
fuel,  and  the  hind  part  a  water  cask. 

When  the  "  Rocket "  was  finished  it  was  placed 
upon  the  Killingworth  Railway  for  the  purpose 
of  experiment.  The  new  boiler  arrangement  was 
found  perfectly  successful.  The  steam  was 
raised  rapidly  and  continuously,  and  in  a  quan- 
tity which  then  appeared  marvellous.  The  same 
evening  Robert  despatched  a  letter  to  his  father 
at  Liverpool,  informing  him,  to  his  great  joy, 
that  the  "Rocket"  was  "all  right,"  and  would 
be  in  complete  working  trim  by  the  day  of 
trial.  The  engine  was  shortly  after  sent  by 
waggon  to  Carlisle,  and  thence  shipped  for 
Liverpool. 

The  time  so  much  longed  for  by  George  Steph- 
enson  had  now  arrived,  when  the  merits  of  the 
177 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

passenger  locomotive  were  ."bout  to  be  put  to  the 
test.  He  had  fought  the  battle  for  it  until  now 
almost  single-handed.  Engrossed  by  his  daily 
labours  and  anxieties,  and  harassed  by  difficulties 
and  discouragements  which  would  have  crushed 
the  spirit  of  a  less  resolute  man,  he  had  held 
firmly  to  his  purpose  through  good  and  through 
evil  report.  The  hostility  which  he  experienced 
from  some  of  the  directors  opposed  to  the  adop- 
tion of  the  locomotive  was  the  circumstance  that 
caused  him  the  greatest  grief  of  all ;  for  where  he 
had  looked  for  encouragement,  he  found  only 
carping  and  opposition.  But  his  pluck  never 
failed  him;  and  now  the  "Rocket"  was 
upon  the  ground  to  prove,  to  use  his  own 
words,  *  'whether  he  was  a  man  of  his  word  or 
not. " 

On  the  day  appointed  for  the  great  competition 
of  locomotives  at  Rainhill  the  following  engines 
were  entered  for  the  prize: 

1.  Messrs.  Braithwaite  and  Ericsson's  "Nov- 
elty." 

2.  Mr.    Timothy    Hackworth's    "  Sanspareil. " 

3.  Messrs.  R.  Stephenson  &  Co.'s  "Rocket." 

4.  Mr.   Burstall's  "Perseverance." 

The  ground  on  which  the  engines  were  to  be 
tried  was  a  level  piece  of  railroad,  about  two  miles 
in  length.  Each  was  required  to  make  twenty 
trips,  or  equal  to  a  journey  of  seventy  miles,  in 
the  course  of  the  day,  and  the  average  rate  of 
travelling  was  to  be  not  under  ten  miles  an  hour. 
It  was  determined  that,  to  avoid  confusion,  each 


Victory  of  the  "  Rocket  "  Locomotive 

engine  should  be  tried  separately,  and  on  differ- 
ent days. 

The  day  fixed  for  the  competition  was  the  ist 
of  October,  but,  to  allow  sufficient  time  to  get 
the  locomotives  into  good  working  order,  the 
directors  extended  it  to  the  6th.  It  was  quite 
characteristic  of  the  Stephensons  that,  although 
their  engine  did  not  stand  first  on  the  list  for 
trial,  it  was  the  first  that  was  ready,  and  it  was 
accordingly  ordered  out  by  the  judges  for  an 
experimental  trip.  Yet  the  "  Rocket "  was  by  no 
means  the  "favourite"  with  either  the  judges  or 
the  spectators.  Nicholas  Wood  has  since  stated 
that  the  majority  of  the  judges  were  strongly  pre- 
disposed in  favour  of  the  "Novelty,"  and  that 
"nine-tenths,  if  not  ten-tenths,  of  the  persons 
present  were  against  the  *  Rocket '  because  of  its 
appearance."  Nearly  every  person  favoured 
some  other  engine,  so  that  there  was  nothing  for 
the  "Rocket"  but  the  practical  test.  The  first 
trip  made  by  it  was  quite  successful.  It  ran 
about  twelve  miles,  without  interruption,  in 
about  fifty-three  minutes. 

The  "  Novelty  "  was  next  called  out.  It  was  a 
light  engine,  very  compact  in  appearance,  carry- 
ing the  water  and  fuel  upon  the  same  wheels  as 
the  engine.  The  weight  of  the  whole  was  only 
three  tons  and  one  hundred-weight.  A  pecu- 
liarity of  this  engine  was  that  the  air  was  driven 
or  forced  through  the  fire  by  means  of  bellows. 
The  day  being  now  far  advanced,  and  some  dis- 
pute having  arisen  as  to  the  method  of  assigning 
179 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

the  proper  load  for  the  "  Novelty, "  no  particular 
experiment  was  made  further  than  that  the 
engine  traversed  the  line  by  way  of  exhibition, 
occasionally  moving  at  the  rate  of  twenty-four 
miles  an  hour.  The  "Sanspareil, "  constructed 
by  Mr.  Timothy  Hackworth,  was  next  exhibited, 
but  no  particular  experiment  was  made  with  it 
on  this  day.  This  engine  differed  but  little  in 
its  construction  from  the  locomotive  last  sup- 
plied by  the  Stephensons  to  the  Stockton  and 
Darlington  Railway,  of  which  Mr.  Hackworth 
was  the  locomotive  foreman. 

The  contest  was  postponed  until  the  following 
day;  but,  before  the  judges  arrived  on  the  ground, 
the  bellows  for  creating  the  blast  in  the  "Nov- 
elty" gave  way,  and  it  was  found  incapable  of 
going  through  its  performance.  A  defect  was  also 
detected  in  the  boiler  of  the  "Sanspareil,"  and 
some  further  time  was  allowed  to  get  it  repaired. 
The  large  number  of  spectators  who  had  as- 
sembled to  witness  the  contest  were  greatly  dis- 
appointed at  this  postponement;  but,  to  lessen  it, 
Stephenson  again  brought  out  the  "Rocket," 
and,  attaching  it  to  a  coach  containing  thirty 
persons,  he  ran  them  along  the  line  at  a  rate  of 
from  twenty-four  to  thirty  miles  an  hour,  much 
to  their  gratification  and  amazement.  Before 
separating,  the  judges  ordered  the  engine  to  be  in 
1  readiness  by  eight  o'clock  on  the  following  morn- 
ing, to  go  through  its  definite  trial  according  to 
the  prescribed  conditions. 

On  the  morning  of  the   8th  of  October  the 
180 


Victory  of  the  "  Rocket"  Locomotive 

"  Rocket "  was  again  ready  for  the  contest.  The 
engine  was  taken  to  the  extremity  of  the  stage, 
the  fire-box  was  filled  with  coke,  the  fire  lighted, 
and  the  steam  raised  until  it  lifted  the  safety-valve 
loaded  to  a  pressure  of  fifty  pounds  to  the  square 
inch.  This  proceeding  occupied  fifty-seven 
minutes.  The  engine  then  started  on  its  journey, 
dragging  after  it  about  thirteen  tons'  weight  in 
waggons,  and  made  the  first  ten  trips  backward 
and  forward  along  two  miles  of  road,  running  the 
thirty-five  miles,  including  stoppages,  in  an  hour, 
and  forty-eight  minutes.  The  second  ten  trips 
were  in  like  manner  performed  in  two  hours  and 
three  minutes.  The  maximum  velocity  attained 
during  the  trial  trip  was  twenty-nine  miles  an 
hour,  or  about  three  times  the  speed  that  one  of 
the  judges  of  the  competition  had  declared  to  be 
the  limit  of  possibility.  The  average  speed  at 
which  the  whole  of  the  journeys  was  performed 
was  fifteen  miles  an  hour,  or  five  miles  beyond  the 
rate  specified  in  the  conditions  published  by  the 
company.  The  entire  performance  excited  the 
greatest  astonishment  among  the  assembled 
spectators;  the  directors  felt  confident  that  their 
enterprise  was  now  on  the  eve  of  success;  and 
George  Stephenson  rejoiced  to  think  that,  in 
spite  of  all  false  prophets  and  fickle  counsellors, 
the  locomotive  system  was  now  safe.  When  the 
"Rocket,"  having  performed  all  the  conditions 
of  the  contest,  arrived  at  the  "grand  stand"  at 
the  close  of  its  day's  successful  run,  Mr.  Cropper 
— one  of  the  directors  favourable  to  the  fixed 
181 


Masterpieces   of   Science 

engine  system — lifted  up  his  hands,  and  ex- 
claimed, "Now  has  George  Stephenson  at  last 
delivered  himself." 

The  "Rocket"  had  eclipsed  the  performance 
of  all  locomotive  engines  that  had  yet  been  con- 
structed, and  outstripped  even  the  sanguine  ex- 
pectations of  its  constructors.  It  satisfactorily 
answered  the  report  of  Messrs.  Walker  and  Ras- 
trick,  and  established  the  efficiency  of  the  loco- 
motive for  working  the  Liverpool  and  Man- 
chester Railway,  and,  indeed,  all  future  railways. 
The  "Rocket"  showed  that  a  new  power  had 
been  born  into  the  world,  full  of  activity  and 
strength,  with  boundless  capability  of  work. 
It  was  the  simple  but  admirable  contrivance  of 
the  steamblast,  and  its  combination  with  the 
multitubular  boiler,  that  at  once  gave  locomotion 
a  vigorous  life,  and  secured  the  triumph  of  the 
railway  system.* 

*  When  heavier  and  more  powerful  engines  were  brought 
upon  the  road,  the  old  "Rocket,"  becoming  regarded  as  a 
thing  of  no  value,  was  sold  in  1837.  It  hat>  since  been  trans- 
ferred to  the  Museum  of  Patents  at  South  Kensington,  Lon- 
don, where  it  is  still  to  be  seen. 


182 


The  "Rocket1 


183 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed, 
rhis  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


-9  1947 
1     1948 


RECD  LD 

MAY1    1957 


zs  2 

RECEIVED 


CIRCULATION  DEP 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


CD21DM731S 


JVJ306208 

TIB 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


